Chapter 2　The Classical Period: Symphony as an Independent Music Form
第二章　交响乐盛行的古典主义时期

1．The overall characteristics of the classical music　古典时期音乐概述

In the 18th century Europe, in the build-up to the French Revolution, the Enlightenment had ushered in a revolution in the outlook on life. It started as a reaction to the oppressing theoretical and feudal authorities, and spread to economy, politics, law and order, philosophy, science, social structure and trends. The exponents of the law of nature, knowledge, freedom, universal education and human rights such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot and Rousseau brought sunshine into the darkness of the society. All disciplines began to open to the general public and the ordinary people had access to cultural products such as novels and plays that depicted the life of the commons. The musicians also stepped out of the depth of the court to embrace the public, wring music marked by humanism, humor, and content easy to understand. The openness of the rulers and the marriage among the kings and queens of various kingdoms reduced their barriers. As a result, art, particularly music, blended together during this period.

18世纪的欧洲，在法国大革命之前经历了一场广泛的思想革命——启蒙运动。它是以反对教会神权和封建专制的文化运动的面貌出现的，然而它的影响远远超出文化领域，涉及经济、政治、法律、哲学、科学乃至社会制度和社会风尚等方面。启蒙思想家提倡自然神论，提倡科学和常识知识，提倡自由、平等和普遍教育，伏尔泰、孟德斯鸠、狄德罗、卢梭等正是身体力行地要以先进的哲学文化知识的光辉照亮黑暗愚昧的社会。古典主义时期是知识大众化的时代，哲学、科学、文学和艺术开始面向新兴的资产阶级和公众，小说、戏剧开始描绘普通人的日常生活，音乐家也走出宫廷深院的大门，为音乐会的听众构思创作。于是，音乐的愉悦性、易解性和动人等品质成为音乐美的准则。在启蒙运动的人道主义思想影响下，欧洲形成了一个开明君主的统治时期，欧洲君主的广泛联姻削弱了国家民族的界限，使艺术，特别是音乐的发展呈现出欧洲一体化的倾向。

2．Breakthroughs in opera, musical instruments and forms　歌剧、器乐和作品形式的突破

Three trends of the middle years of the 18th century were behind this transition.

The first trend was known as Reform Opera. A number of composers reacted against what they saw as the stilted conventions of Italian Baroque opera. They wanted to make Italian opera more natural, more directly expressive, with more focus on the dramatic narrative and less focus on providing solo singers with passages of elaborate, showy ornamentation. The most successful of these composers was Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787). The topics of Reform opera were not new: Gluck's opera Orfeo ed Euridice retells the Orpheus legend, as did Monteverdi's famous L'Orfeo 150 years before. In the aria Che fiero momento, Euridice sings of her trepidation at being led away by Orpheus from the calm of the underworld.

格鲁克，德国作曲家，他的歌剧改革对法国、意大利、奥地利、瑞典、英国音乐戏剧的发展产生了显著影响，是歌剧发展史上的一个里程碑	歌剧《费加罗的婚礼》一幕，这部歌剧是莫扎特众多歌剧中最为著名的一部，也是中国乐迷最为熟悉的一部

The opera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. Opera buffa is opera of light or amusing nature, with situations taken from everyday life. It depicts unadulterated commonplace scenes peopled by realistic types like miserly men and amorous women instead of serious opera where the characters are always perfect. Some of the most popular examples of Comic Opera are Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro and Donizetti's The Elixir of Love.

The second trend was a change in instruments. The piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788), a son of the more famous J.S. Bach, preferred not the harpsichord but the clavichord and the fortepiano, instruments that could play louder or softer depending on the force with which their keys were struck. Bach's keyboard music uses this dynamic variability to appropriate some of the character of 18th century Italian vocal music. His slow movements were believed to express restrained passion and melancholy.

Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) was the most important harpsichord player in Italy in the first half of the 18th century. He wrote over 600 single movements, call sonata by later generations. They adopted the two-line structure and were close to the classical sonata style. His music gave the advantages of the harpsichord a full play, using new techniques from great leaps, cross hand to fast repetition and chords on the keyboard. He ushered in a new and free era for keyboard instruments and marked a transition for Baroque to Classism. His music is still being performed today.

Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical period. While double reeded instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.

The third trend was the innovation of form. The Classical period which saw the introduction of a form which has dominated instrumental composition to the present day: sonata form. Sonata comes from the Italian word meaning "sound" and is the name of an instrumental genre that tends to have various movements and performed by a chamber ensemble. It usually contains three or four main parts in different styles: allegro—a lively, sparkling opening piece, andante—a slower movement, minuet—a light, dance type movement, and finale. With it came the development of the modern concerto, symphony, trio and quartet to a new peak of structural and expressive refinement.

The Classical period also ushered in the era of the symphony, a multi—movement work for orchestra. Early symphonies were modeled on the overtures of Baroque Italian opera. Then it became an extended musical composition which was scored almost always for orchestra, a large ensemble including strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Usually at least one part of a symphony follows the pattern of sonata. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (which had been part of the traditional continuo in the Baroque style), and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster). The late 18th century orchestra still numbered about 30 players, an extension of the size of music performance in the Baroque era, in contrast to the 70 or more players in modern orchestras.

Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music. Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque. Importance was given to instrumental music—the main kinds were sonata, trio, string quartet, symphony, concerto, serenade and divertimento. The predominant figures in this period were Gluck, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven.

古钢琴，它是通过羽毛管制作的拨子来拨动一根金属丝弦而发音	多梅尼科·斯卡拉蒂，被誉为“古奏鸣曲式之父”，为古奏鸣曲式的定型起了很大作用

在18世纪启蒙思想的浪潮下，音乐也呈现三种变革趋势。

首先是歌剧改革，一批作曲家突破了意大利生硬的歌剧形式，希望作品更加自然，直抒胸臆，叙事更精彩，而不是刻意地在独唱曲目中加入很多修饰成分故作炫耀。革新人物中最成功的包括克里斯托弗·威利巴尔德·格鲁克(1714～1787年)。改革歌剧的主题不是新颖的：他的歌剧《奥尔菲欧与尤丽狄茜》是150年前作曲家蒙特威尔第的同名作品的再创造，其中女主人公尤丽狄茜唱的一首咏叹调表现了她在丈夫奥尔菲的带领下离开冥界时的紧张心情。

喜歌剧在这时期开始流行，这类歌剧题材轻松，逗人发笑，都是日常生活中发生的事情。喜歌剧中的场景非常生活化，常常会看到吝啬鬼和多情女子这样人们熟悉的形象，而以前的歌剧中那些近乎完美的人物则被舍弃。莫扎特的《费加罗的婚礼》和多尼采蒂的《爱情灵药》就属于喜歌剧。

第二是乐器的创新，钢琴成为键盘乐器的主流。卡尔·菲利普·埃马努埃尔·巴赫(1714～1788年)是西方音乐之父J.S.巴赫的儿子，他不喜欢大键琴，因而改用古钢琴。因为古钢琴的声音可以随着手指的力度不同而发生显著的变化，其时而洪亮，时而轻柔。小巴赫利用古钢琴变化丰富的特点来弹奏18世纪意大利的歌曲，饱含深情地将被压抑的热情和忧郁都释放了出来。

多梅尼科·斯卡拉蒂（1685～1757年）是18世纪上半叶最主要的意大利古钢琴作曲家，他创作了近600首单乐章钢琴曲，后人称之为奏鸣曲。它们采用带再现因素的古二部曲式，结构已接近古典奏鸣曲式。多梅尼科·斯卡拉蒂的钢琴奏鸣曲主题生动，多变的织体发挥出了钢琴的性能，其中还采用了大幅度跳跃、双手交叉、快速重复音及和弦等新颖技法，他使键盘乐器演奏风格进入了新的自由天地。多梅尼科·斯卡拉蒂的古钢琴艺术体现出巴洛克向古典主义新风格的过渡，他的作品至今仍是音乐会常常演奏的曲目。

古典音乐时代，管乐器变得更加精致。在巴洛克时代，双簧乐器如双簧管和低音管是常用的标准乐器，在古典音乐时期，莫扎特开始在交响乐、室内乐和协奏曲中广泛运用单簧管。

古典时期日益完善的双簧管和低音单簧管

第三是作品形式的创新。古典主义时期出现了直到今天仍然在器乐音乐创作上占主导地位的音乐形式：奏鸣曲。奏鸣曲来自拉丁文，意思是“声响”，其乐曲节奏变化鲜明，常常由几种乐曲共同演奏，通常包含三到四个部分：明快活泼的快板、徐徐渐进的行板、轻盈的小步舞曲和尾声。由奏鸣曲而衍生了后来的协奏曲、交响乐、三重奏和四重奏。

交响乐也是古典主义时期出现的重要音乐形式，是交响乐团演奏的一种非常复杂、层次很多的音乐形式。早期交响乐模仿巴洛克时期意大利歌剧的序曲，后来成为专门给交响乐团演奏的篇幅更长的乐曲，乐团中的乐器包括弦乐器、木管乐器、铜管乐器和打击乐器，交响乐中至少有一段遵循奏鸣曲的结构形式。在交响乐团中不再需要巴洛克时期负责低音连奏的古钢琴了，而由因小提琴家取而代之，今天叫做首席小提琴家。18世纪末，一个交响乐团大约有30人，这在当时已经是很大的乐团，当然不能跟今天70多人的乐团相比。

较之巴洛克音乐，古典音乐更加轻盈、明澈、简洁，其曲调、旋律、节奏和乐曲的变换更频繁，情绪和音质的变化更丰富。在这时期，器乐得到空前重视，包括奏鸣曲、三重唱、弦乐四重奏、交响乐、协奏曲、小夜曲和谑戏曲。古典时期的代表人物有：格鲁克、沃尔夫冈·阿玛多伊斯·莫扎特和路德维希·凡·贝多芬。

3．Leading figures in early, middle and late Classism　早、中、晚期古典主义代表音乐家

Gluck: Early Classism Pioneer　格鲁克：早期古典主义先锋

Christoph Willibald Von Gluck was an opera composer of the early classical period. After many years at the Habsburg court at Vienna, Gluck brought about the practical reform of opera's dramaturgical practices that many intellectuals had been campaigning for over the years. With a series of radical new works in the 1760s, among them Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste, he broke the stranglehold that Metastasian opera seria had enjoyed for much of the century.

The strong influence of French opera in these works encouraged Gluck to move to Paris. Fusing the traditions of Italian opera and the French national genre into a new synthesis, Gluck wrote eight operas for the Parisian stages. One of the last of these, Iphigénie en Tauride, was a great success and is generally acknowledged to be his finest work.

克里斯托弗·威利巴尔德·格鲁克是早期古典音乐的代表作曲家。他多年在维也纳的创作经历给歌剧艺术带来了许多新的元素。格鲁克在18世纪60年代创作了许多革新性的歌剧，如《奥尔菲欧与尤丽狄茜》和《阿尔切斯特》等，打破了意大利剧作家梅塔斯塔齐奥设定的创作传统。

作品的成功让格鲁克信心百倍地来到巴黎，他把意大利歌剧传统与法国音乐相结合，创作出许多广受好评的作品，而《伊菲姬尼在陶里德》可以说是他最好的作品。

Mozart: a music genius that embraced by the European world　莫扎特：享誉欧洲的音乐神童

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music.

Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood in Salzburg. Before his ninth birthday, Mozart composed his first symphony. The family, including Mozart's parents and his elder sister, lived for years touring and performing over Europe.

The central traits of the classical style can be identified in Mozart's music. Clarity, balance, and transparency are hallmarks of his work. The piano concerto was almost single-handedly developed and popularized by Mozart. But simplistic notions of its delicacy mask the exceptional power of his finest masterpieces, such as The Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491, The Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550, A Little Night Music (1787), and the opera The Marriage of Figaro(1786), Don Giovanni (Don Juan) (1787), The Magic Flute(1791).

But fame did not bring a well-off life for Mozart. In Vienna, he worked as a free-lance composer and enjoyed little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of The Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his early death at 35 years of age.

莫扎特，18世纪欧洲最伟大的古典主义音乐作曲家之一	歌剧《魔笛》中的一幕，这部歌剧是在莫扎特生活窘迫的环境下写作的，但是它的基调却是明朗、欢快的

沃尔夫冈·阿玛多伊斯·莫扎特（1756～1791年）是古典音乐时期一位影响极大的作曲家，一生创作了600多部作品，大多被誉为当时交响乐、室内乐、歌剧和合唱乐的巅峰。

莫扎特小时候在家乡萨尔茨堡就展现了非凡的音乐才华，9岁时创作了自己的第一部交响曲，并且很小就一直和父母、姐姐一起在欧洲各国表演。

古典音乐的所有特质都在莫扎特的作品中体现出来，清晰、平衡、明澈是他的作品的最大特点。钢琴协奏曲几乎是由莫扎特一人之力发展起来的，在表面的简洁下面蕴藏的是他最负盛名的杰作，如他的《C小调24钢琴协奏曲》（K419）、《G小调第40交响曲》（K550）、《小夜曲》（1787年），还有歌剧《费加罗的婚礼》（1787年）、《唐·乔瓦尼》（即《唐璜》）（1791年）和《魔笛》（1791年）。

享誉欧洲的美名并没有给莫扎特带来富足的生活，他在维也纳大多时间都是自由创作者，没有什么钱。莫扎特最负盛名的作品大多是在维也纳创作的，但这位天才音乐家却在35岁时英年早逝，死前没有来得及写完他最后的作品《安魂曲》。

Beethoven: a transitional figure to Romanticism　贝多芬：古典主义向浪漫主义的过渡人物

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) studied with Haydn and other Classical composers as a young man; he found commercial success in late 18th -century Vienna, as had Haydn and Mozart. Yet Beethoven was considered a proto-Romantic by his 19th-century successors. Beethoven's image as a scowling, disheveled eccentric is largely undeserved, but it is true that Beethoven fought deafness since he was 26. Beethoven had a very small symphonic output, only nine of them, but they strongly color the genre. His Ninth Symphony, unusually, includes chorus and soloists for a setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem Ode an die Freude, usually translated as Ode to Joy, which has become a household-name for people through out the world. Some of his music seemed awkward and violent to those who first heard it. The first movement of one of his most famous work, Symphony No. 5, is built on the sonata-form model, but its famous opening and its protracted coda (ending) were novel features.

His music reflected his violent emotions, his sufferings, and joys. In 1803, he dedicated his Symphony No. 3 in E flat major: Erocia to Napoleon, praising him as the symbol of "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity", for he deeply sympathized with the ideals of the French Revolution. In 1808, Beethoven composed the most popular of all symphonies, Symphony No.5 in C minor: Fate, in which he expressed a musical depiction of his struggle with the fate of deafness. By the time he wrote Symphony No. 6 in F major: Pastorale in 1808, he had completely gone deaf. But his love for nature only seemed to grow, as evidence in Pastorale.

路德维希·凡·贝多芬（1770～1827年）年轻时师从海顿和其他古典音乐大师，与海顿和莫扎特一样，他也是在维也纳成名的。贝多芬影响了许多19世纪的音乐家，因此也被看做浪漫主义的领军人物。贝多芬性格古怪、偏执张狂，得罪过不少人，但是他的经历也很悲惨，从26岁起便要与耳聋作斗争。贝多芬的交响曲作品很少，只有九首，但是却首首经典，他的《第九交响曲》中有一些合唱和独唱填的是诗人弗里德里希·席勒的诗歌《欢乐颂》。虽然如今全世界对其大名都已经耳熟能详，但对当时的人来说，第一次听贝多芬的作品却不禁要被他标新立异的风格和激烈的节奏所吓到。他著名的《第五交响曲》结构遵循奏鸣曲，开始开篇的乐章和拖长的结尾却具有十分新奇的特点。

贝多芬的作品反映了他强烈的情感、命运的多舛和对生活的热爱。1803年，为了表示对正如火如荼地进行的法国大革命的同情与支持，他将第三交响曲《英雄》献给了拿破仑，赞颂他所代表的“自由、平等、博爱”；1808年，贝多芬创作了他最知名的交响乐，第五交响曲《命运》，表达了他与耳疾抗争的艰难历程。到1808年，他创作第六交响曲《田园》的时候双耳已经完全失聪，这部作品正表现了他在这种情况下对大自然的依恋之情。