C

The Cold War started shortly after World WarⅡ.The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from the war as the two global superpowers，while Europe and East Asia lay devastated.Having been attacked twice from the west during its history，the Soviet Union was determined to make its western border secure for the future.It annexed the Baltic states and established pro⁃Soviet regimes in Poland，Hungary，Romania，Bulgaria，Albania，and Yugoslavia.The United States and its allies were suspicious of the Soviet Union’s intentions and adopted a policy of containment to prevent the expansion of Soviet communism.

To counter Soviet influence in Europe and to guarantee that Europe would remain capitalist by making Europe prosperous again，the U.S.government announced the European Recovery Act in 1947，commonly known as the Marshall Plan.Between 1947 and 1952，the American government provided more than﹩13 billion in aid to Europe.About 70％ of the funds were used to purchase U.S.goods，which helped to strengthen the American economic boom after World WarⅡ.

In April 1949，the United States entered a peacetime military alliance with European countries for the first time in its history.It signed a mutual defense treaty with 11 other western counties（Canada，the United Kingdom，France，Italy，Belgium，the Netherlands，Luxemburg，Portugal，Denmark，Norway，and Ireland）to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization（NATO）.Greece and Turkey joined the organization in 1952，and in 1955，West Germany became a NATO member too.To counter the formation of NATO，the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe（Albania，Bulgaria，Czechoslovakia，East Germany，Hungary，Poland，and Romania）established the Warsaw Pact.

The United States also pursued its containment policy in Asia.When the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949，the United States refused to recognize it and used every means to stifle it.In 1950，it fought the Korean War in order to restrain North Korea.U.S.troops pushed to the Chinese border，threatening the security of China.As a result，the Chinese People’s Volunteers Army crossed the border and pushed the Americans and their allies back to the south of the 38th parallel.In July 1953，an armistice was signed which set the 38th parallel as the dividing line between the North and South Koreas.

The Cold War also had a profound impact on the United States domestically.There was a search for Communist sympathizers among Americans.Federal employees were asked to take an oath of loyalty to the country and those who refused to do so were fired.Some people were thrown into prison.

The Cold War was also fought in the Americas，most prominently in Cuba.The United States tried many ways to oust the Communist government led by Fidel Castro.In 1961，the U.S.sponsored an invasion by Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs which ended in defeat.Then in 1962，the United States and the Soviet Union confronted each other in the Cuban missile crisis，with the U.S.imposing a naval blockade to thwart Soviet efforts to establish a nuclear missile base in Cuba.

After the missile crisis was over，the leadership of both the United States and the Soviet Union realized the dangerous consequences of a nuclear confrontation.They took steps to avoid direct confrontation in the future.

But by far the most devastating episode of the Cold War was fought in Vietnam.The Vietnam War was the longest war the United States had fought and the first war it completely lost.The U.S.endured high costs militarily，economically and morally.Vietnam won its independence from the French in 1954.However，Vietnam was split into two parts：North Vietnam，led by the Communists who had opposed the French，and South Vietnam，controlled by those who had collaborated with the French.North Vietnam tried to unify the country after the French left.Afraid that the victory of North Vietnam would lead to further Communist expansion in Southeast Asia，the United States stepped in to help the South to fight against the North.It began to send large numbers of American troops in 1965，and the war lasted until 1973 when most U.S.forces finally withdrew from Vietnam.The American government spent about 130 billion dollars fighting the war.More than half a million Americans fought in the war，of whom 58，000 died and about 300，000 were wounded.

Nixon in Beijing 1972

Shortly after the end of the Vietnam War，President Nixon was forced to resign under threat of impeachment because of his part in the Watergate scandal.Watergate was the headquarters of the Democratic Party’s National Committee.Before the election，five Republicans broke into the building and were caught.The President denied any knowledge of it.But later evidence showed that his aides knew about it and that he had tried to cover up the burglars’connection to his administration.Nixon became the first President who was forced to resign from office.Many Americans at around this time became disillusioned about their government because of Watergate and the Vietnam War.

However，Nixon played an important role in the normalization of relations between the United States and China and the pursuit of a policy of détente with the Soviet Union.He was the first U.S.President to visit China and started talks in 1972 that finally led to the establishment of formal relations between the two countries.In the same year，Nixon also visited the Soviet Union and the two countries joined in a series of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks（SALT）aiming at reducing nuclear weapons.The policy of détente lasted until 1981 when President Ronald Reagan adopted a more aggressive policy toward the Soviet Union.Reagan restarted the arms race between the two superpowers，and used military force against foreign governments which he believed were pro⁃communist and posed a threat to U.S.national security.The most scandalous case was the Iran Contra affair.In order to topple the popularly elected pro⁃Soviet government in Nicaragua，the U.S.government sold weapons to Iran in order to raise funds to illegally support the Contras，an anti⁃government force in Nicaragua.

Although Reagan was determined to win the Cold War，he was worried about the possibility of a nuclear war and wanted to improve relations with the Soviet Union.The Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev，who was trying to carry out reforms at home，also wanted to improve relations with the United States.The two countries finally reached an agreement to reduce nuclear weapons in 1987.In December，1988，the Soviet Union reduced its military forces by 500，000 and withdrew part of its military from Eastern Europe.In 1990，the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War came to an end.