Supplementary Reading
The Four Levels of Ethics[6]
Codes of ethics are wide in scope and encompass a whole profession or occupational category.A code of ethics is a statement of professional standards of conduct to which the practitioners of a profession say they subscribe.In public administration there is a hierarchy of levels of ethics，each of which has its own set of responsibilities.First，there is personal morality—the basic sense of right and wrong.This is a function of our past and is dependent upon factors such as parental influences，religious belief，cultural and social mores，and one's own personal experiences.
Second in the hierarchy is professional ethics.Public administrators increasingly recognize a set of professional norms and rules that obligate them to act in certain“professional”ways.Such guidelines are codified by professional associations such as the American Society for Public Administration and the International City Management Association.However，occupations such as law and medicine，while operating within public administration，also have their own independent professional codes.
A third level of ethics is organizational.Every organization has an environment or culture that includes both formal and informal rules of ethical conduct.Public organizations typically have many such rules.Public laws，executive orders，and agency rules and regulations all can be taken as formal organizational norms for ethical behavior.
Finally，there are social ethics.The requirements of social ethics oblige members of a given society to act in ways that both protect individuals and further the progress of the group as a whole.Social ethics are formal to the extent that they can be found in the laws of a given society，informal to the extent that they are part of an individual's social conscience.
However，codes of ethics are usually not legally binding，so they may not be taken too seriously as constraints on behavior.They sometimes become significant factors in political campaigns when questionable behavior by one side or the other is attacked or defended as being within or without a professional code.Professional groups also hide behind codes as a way of protecting(or criticizing)a member subject to public attack.Nevertheless，the problem remains that some people need help in determining just what constitutes ethical behavior.So codes are useful;but standards have the kind of teeth that can put you in jail.
【注释】
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[1]Source:Excerpt from Mark W.Huddleston and Dennis L.Dresang，The Public Administration Workbook，New York:Pearson Education，Inc.，2007，pp.81，99-101.
[2]http://www.tititudorancea.com/z/what_is_administrative_law.htm.
[3]In 1981 the American Society for Public Administration's National Council adopted a set of moral principles.Three years later in 1984，the Council approved a Code of Ethics for ASPA members.In 1994 the Code was revised.See http://www.main.org/aspa/code.htm.
[4]Whistle-blowing refers to what happens when an employee decides that obligations to society come before obligations to an organization.Thus a whistle-blower is an individual who believes the public interest overrides the interests of his/her organization and publicly blows the whistle on—exposes—corrupt，illegal，fraudulent，or harmful activities.
[5]A higher law is the notion that no matter what the laws of a state are，there remains a higher law(national security，abolishing of slavery and human rights)，to which a person has an even greater obligation.A higher law is often appealed to by those who wish to attack an existing law or practice that courts or legislators are unlikely or unwilling to change.In some cases，administrators'responsibilities can conflict because there are multiple levels of ethics and morality，each with its own set of obligations and duties.One of the most difficult aspects of being a public administrator is managing the conflict of responsibilities between the competing claims of stakeholders and the varying levels of ethics.
[6]Source:Excerpt from Jay M.Shafritz and E.W.Rusell，Introducing Public Administration(2nd Edition)，New York:Addison Wesley Longman，Inc.，2000，pp.534-543.