有法无式格自高

有法无式格自高

园林设计有法而无式，兹据现状，略作具体分析。

江南园林占地不广，然千岩万壑，清流碧潭，皆宛然如画，正如《履园丛话》所说：“造园如作诗文，必使曲折有法。”因此，对于山水、亭台、厅堂、楼阁、曲池、方沼、花墙、游廊等的安排，必使风花雪月，光景常新，不落窠臼，始为上品。对于总体布局及空间处理，务使观之不尽，极尽规划之能事。

总体布局可分为以下几种：以水为主题的，其佳构多循“水随山转，山因水活”的基本原则。或贯以小桥，或绕以游廊，间列亭台楼阁，大者中列岛屿，此类如苏州网师园、怡园等。而庙堂巷畅园，地颇狭小，一水居中，绕以廊屋，宛如盆景。

园林之水，首在寻源，无源之水必成死水。然而，园林面积既小，欲使之有汪洋之概，则在于设计得法，其法有二：（一）池面利用不规则的平面，间列岛屿，上贯以小桥，使人望去不觉一览无遗；（二）留心曲岸水口的设计，故意做成许多湾头，望之仿佛有许多源流，如是，则水来去无尽头，有深壑藏幽之感。至于曲岸水口之利用芦苇，杂以菰蒲，则更显得隐约迷离，这要在较大的园林应用才妙。留园活泼泼地水榭临流，溪至榭下势已尽，但亦流入一小部分，俯视之下，若榭跨溪上，水不觉终止。沧浪亭以山为主，但西部的步碕廊突然逐渐加高，高瞰水潭，自然临渊莫测。苏州艺圃和上海豫园之桥与水几平，反之，两岸山石愈显高峻了。怡园之桥虽低于山，似嫌与水尚有一些距离。至于小溪作桥，在对比之下，其情况何如不难想象。古人改用“点其步石”的方法，则更为自然有致。瀑布除环秀山庄、扬州汪氏小苑檐瀑外，他则罕有。

基地积水弥漫而占地广，布置遂较自由。如拙政园能发挥开朗变化的特色，其中部的一些小山，平冈小坡，曲岸回沙，都是运用人工方法来符合自然的意趣。池水聚分大小有别，大园宜分，小园宜聚，然聚必以分为辅，分必主次有序。网师园与拙政园是两个佳例，皆苏州园林上品。

前水后山，堂筑于水前，坐堂中，穿水遥对山石，而堂则若水榭，横卧波面，苏州艺圃布局即如是。

至于中列山水，四周环以楼及廊屋，高低错落，迤逦相续，与中部山石相呼应，如苏州耦园东部者，在苏州尚不多见。

其次以山石为全园之主题，如环秀山庄。因该园无水源可得，无洼地可利用，故以山石为主题使其突出，固设计中一法。更略引水泉，俾山有生机，岩现活态，苔痕鲜润，草本华滋，宛然若真山水了。

至于用石，明代以至清初园林崇尚自然，多利用原有地形，略加整理。其所用石，在苏州大体以黄石为主，如拙政园中部二小山及绣绮亭下者。黄石虽无湖石玲珑剔透，然掇石有法，反觉浑成，既无矫揉做作之态，又无累石之险。到清代造园，率皆以湖石叠砌，贪多好奇，每以湖石之多少与一峰之优劣与他园计较短长。试以怡园而论，购洞庭山三处废园之石累积而成，一峰一石，自有上选，即其一例。环秀山庄改建于乾隆年间，数弓之池，深溪幽壑，势若天成，其竖石运用宋人山水斧劈皴法，再加镶嵌，简洁遒劲。其水则迂回曲折，山石处处滋润，苍岩欣欣欲活，诚为江南园林的杰构。设计者必须胸有丘壑，叠山造石才可挥洒自如。

掇山既须以原有地形为据，而自然之态又变化多端，无一定成法，不过，自然的形态亦有一定的规律可循。能通乎师造化之理，从自然景物加以分析，证以古人作品，评其妍媸，撷其菁华，当可构成最美的典型。奈何苏州所见晚期园林什九已程式化，从不在整体考虑，每以亭台池馆妄加拼凑。尤以掇山造石，皆举一峰片石，视之为古董，对花树的衬托、建筑物的调和等则有所忽略。这是今日园林设计者要引以为鉴的。

中国园林除水、石、池、沼外，建筑物如厅、堂、斋、台、亭、榭、轩、巷、廊等，也是构成园林的主要部分。然江南园林以幽静雅淡为主，故建筑物要轻巧，方始相称，所以在建筑物的地点、平面以及外观上不能不注意。凡园圃立基，先定厅堂景致，“妙在朝南，倘有乔木数株，仅就中庭一二”。江南苏州园林尚守是法，如拙政园远香堂、留园涵碧山房等皆是。至于楼台亭阁的布置，虽无定法，但按基形成，格式随宜，花间隐榭，水际安亭，还是要设计者从整体出发，加以灵活应用。古代讨论造园的书籍如《园冶》《长物志》《工段营造录》等，虽有述及，最后亦指出其不能守为成法。试以拙政园而论，自高处俯视，建筑物虽然是随宜安排，但是其方向还是直横有序。其外观给人的感觉是以轻快为主，平面正方形、长方形、多边形、圆形等皆有。屋顶形式则有歇山、硬山、悬山、攒尖等，而无庑殿式，且多用“水戗发戗”的飞檐起翘。因此，屋顶外观轻快。檐外玲珑的挂落、柱间微弯的吴王靠，都能取得相互一致的效果。建筑物立面的处理以留园中部而论。自闻木樨香轩东望，对景主要建筑物是曲溪楼，用歇山顶，其外观在第一层做成仿佛台基的形状，与水面相平行的线脚与上层分界，虽系二层，但看去不觉其高耸。尤其曲溪楼、西楼、清风池馆三者的位置各有前后，屋顶立面皆在同中寓不同，与下部的立峰水石都很相称。古木一树斜横波上，益增苍古，而墙上的砖框漏窗、上层的窗棂与墙面虚实的对比，疏淡的花影，都是苏州园林特有的手法，倒影水中，其景更美。明瑟楼与涵碧山房相邻，前者为卷棚歇山，后为卷棚硬山，然两者相联，不能不用变通的办法。明瑟楼歇山山面仅作一面，另一面用垂脊，不但不觉得其难看，反觉生动有变化。他如畅园，因基地较狭长，中为水池，水榭无法安排，卒用单面歇山，实同出一法。西部舒啸亭、至乐亭，前者小而不见玲珑，后者屋顶虽多变化，亦觉过重，都是比例上的缺陷。江南苏州筑亭，晚近香山匠师每将屋顶提得过高，但柱身又细，整个外观未必真美。反视明代遗构艺圃，屋顶略低，较平稳得多。总之，单体建筑必然要考虑到与全园的整体关系才是。至于平面变化，虽洞房曲户，亦必做到曲处有通，实处有疏。小型轩馆，一间，二间，或二间半均可，皆视基地，位置得当。如拙政园海棠春坞，面阔二间，一大一小，宾主分明。留园揖峰轩，面阔二间半，而尤妙于半间。建筑物的高下得势，左右呼应，虚实对比，在在都须留意。苏州王洗马巷万氏园（原为任氏）虽小，书房部分自成一区，极为幽静，其装修与铁瓶巷任宅东西花厅、顾宅花厅，网师园，西百花巷程氏园，大石头巷吴宅花厅等，都是苏州园林中之上选。怡园旧装修几不存，而旱船为江南一带之尤者，所遗装修极精。

园林游廊为园林中的脉络，在园林建筑中处极重要地位。今日苏州园林中常见者为复廊——廊系两面游廊，中隔以粉墙，间以漏窗，使墙内外皆可行走。此种廊大都用于不封闭的园林，如沧浪亭的沿河，或一园中须加以间隔，欲使空间扩大，并使入门有所过渡，如怡园的复廊便是一例，此廊显然仿自沧浪亭。除上述作用外，游廊还可阻朔风与西向阳光。阳光通过廊上漏窗，其图案更觉玲珑剔透。游廊有陆上、水上之分，又有曲廊，直廊之别。造廊忌平直生硬，但过分求曲，亦觉生硬勉强。网师园及拙政园西部水廊小榭，下部用镂空之砖，似为较胜。拙政园旧时柳荫路曲，临水一面栏杆用木制，另一面上安吴王靠，是有道理的。水廊佳者，如拙政园西部的，不但有极佳的曲折，并有适当的坡度，诚如《园冶》所云的“浮廊可渡”，允称佳构。尤其可取的就是曲处湖石芭蕉，配以小榭，更觉有变化。爬山游廊，在苏州园林中的狮子林、留园、拙政园，仅点缀一二，大都用于园林边墙部分。设计此种廊时，应注意到坡度与山的高度问题，运用不当，顿成头重脚轻，上下不协调。在地形狭宽不同的情况下，可运用一面坡，或一面坡与两面坡并用，如留园西部爬山廊。曲廊的曲处是留虚的好办法，随便点缀一些竹石、芭蕉，都是极妙的小景。李斗1云：“板上甃砖谓之响廊，随势曲折谓之游廊……入竹为竹廊，近水为水廊。花间偶出数尖，池北时来一角，或依悬崖，故作危槛，或跨红板，下可通舟，递迢于楼台亭榭之间，而轻好过之。廊贵有栏。廊之有栏，如美人服半臂，腰为之细。其上置板为飞来椅，亦名美人靠，其中广者为轩。”言之尤详，可资参考。今日更有廊外植芭蕉，呼为“蕉廊”；植柳，呼为“柳廊”。夏日人行其间，更觉翠色侵衣，溽暑全消；冬日则阳光射入，温和可喜，用意至善。而古时以廊悬画称“画廊”，今日壁间嵌诗条石，都是极好的应用。

园林中水面之有桥，正如陆路之有廊，重要可知。苏州园林习见之桥，一种为梁式石桥，可分直桥、九曲桥、五曲桥、三曲桥及弧形桥等，其位置有高于水面，与岸相平的，有低于两岸，浮于水面的。以时代面论，后者似较旧，苏州艺圃、怡园，无锡寄畅园及常熟诸园所见的，都是如此。它所表现的效果有二：第一，桥与水平，则游者凌波而过，水益显汪洋，桥更觉其危了；第二，桥低，则山石、建筑愈形高峻，与丘壑、高楼自然成强烈对比。无锡寄畅园假山用平冈，其后以惠山为借景，冈下幽谷间施以是式桥，诚能发挥明代园林设计之高超技术。今日梁式桥往往不照顾地形，不考虑本身大小，随便安置，实属非当，尤其栏杆之高度、形式，都要与全桥及环境作一番研究才是。上选者，如艺圃小桥、拙政园倚虹桥。拙政园中部的三曲五曲之桥，栏杆比例还好，可惜桥本身略高一些。待霜亭与雪香云蔚亭二小山之间石桥仅搁一石板，不施栏杆，极尽自然质朴之意，亦佳构。苏州园林习见之桥的另一种为小型环洞桥，狮子林、网师园都有。以此二桥而论，前者不及后者为佳，因环洞桥不适宜建于水中部。水面既小，用环洞桥中阻，遂显庞大质实，无空灵之感。网师园之环洞桥建于东部水尽头，桥本身又小，从西东望，辽阔的水面中倒影玲珑，反之，自桥西望，亭台映水，用意相同。至于小溪，《园冶》所云“点其步石”的办法尤能与自然相契合，实远胜架桥其上；可是，此法今日差不多已成绝响了。

《清闲供》云：“门内有径，径欲曲。”又云：“室旁有路，路欲分。”园林的路，今日我们在苏州园林所见，还能如此。拙政园中部道路，犹守明时旧规，从原来地形出发，加以变化，主次分明，曲折有度。环秀山庄面积小，小路不能不略作迂盘，但亦能恰到好处，有引人入胜之概。然狮子林中道路却故作曲折，悖自然之理，使人莫知所从。

铺地，在园林建设中亦是一件重要的工作，不论庭前、曲径、主路，皆须极慎重考虑。今日苏州园林所见，有侧砖铺于主路，施工简单，拼凑图案自由。碎石地，用碎石侧铺，可用于主路、小径、庭前，上面间有用缸片点缀一些图案。缸片侧铺，间以瓷片，用法同前。鹅子地或鹅子间加瓷片拼凑成各种图案，称“花界”，比上述的要细致雅洁得多，留园自有佳构。冰裂地则用于庭前，其结构有二：其一，即冰纹石块平置地面，如拙政园远香堂前的，颇饶自然之趣，然亦有不平稳的流弊。其二，则冰纹石交接处皆对卯拼成，施工难而坚固，如留园涵碧山房前，极为工整。至于庭前踏跺用天然石叠，如拙政园远香堂及留园五峰仙馆前的，皆饶野趣。

园林的墙，有乱石墙、磨砖墙、漏砖墙、白粉墙等数种。苏州今日所见以白粉墙为最多。外墙有在顶部开漏窗的，内墙间开漏窗及砖框的，所谓“粉墙花影”，为人乐道。磨砖墙，园内仅建筑物上酌用之，园门十之八九贴以水磨砖拼成的图案，如拙政园大门。乱石墙只见于墙的下半部裙肩处。西园以水花墙区分水面，亦别具一格。

对联和匾额为中国园林中不可少的一件重要点缀品。苏州又为人文荟萃之区，当时园林建造亦有文人画家参与，因此山林岩壑，一亭一榭，莫不用极典雅美丽的词句来形容，使游者入其地，览景生情，而这些词句就是这个环境中最恰当的文字描述。例如，拙政园的远香堂和留听阁，同样是赏荷花的地方，前者出自北宋周敦颐“香远益清”句，后者出自唐李商隐“留得残荷听雨声”句。留园的闻木樨香轩、拙政园的海棠春坞，是根据所种的树木来命名的。游者至此，当能体味出许多文学中的境界，这不能不说是中国园林的一个特色。

苏州诸园皆有好的题辞，而怡园诸联集宋词，更能曲尽其意。至于题匾用料，因防园林风大，故十之八九用银杏木阴刻，填以石绿，或用木阴刻后髹漆敷色，色彩都用冷色，亦有用砖刻的，雅洁可爱。字体以篆、隶、行书为多，罕用正楷，取其古朴自然，与园中景配合方妙。

园林植树，其重要不待细述。苏州园林常见的树种，如拙政园，大树植榆、枫、杨等。留园中部多银杏，西部则漫山枫树。怡园面积小，故植以桂、松及白皮松。尤以白皮松树虽小而姿态古拙，在小园中最显姿态。他则杂以松、梅、棕树、黄杨等生长较为迟缓的树种。此外，园小垣高，阴地多而阳地少，于是墙阴必植耐寒植物，如女贞、棕树、竹之类。岩壑必植松、柏之类乔木。阶下石隙之中，植常绿阴性草类。全园中常绿植物多于落叶植物，则四季咸青，不致秋冬髡秃无物了。至于乔木，若枫、杨、朴、榆、槐、榉、枫等，每年修枝，使其姿态古拙入画。此种树的根部甚美，尤以榆树及枫、杨，树龄大愈老，身空皮留，老干抽条，葱翠如画境。今日苏州园林中之山巅栽树，大致有两种情况：第一类，山巅山麓只植大树，而虚其根部，使可欣赏其根部与山石之美，如留园与拙政园的一部分。第二类，山巅山麓树木皆出丛竹或灌木之上，山石并攀以藤萝，使望去有深郁之感，如沧浪亭和拙政园的一部分。前者得倪瓒2飘逸画意，后者有沈周3沉郁之风。至于滨河低卑之地，则种柳、栽竹、植芦，墙阴栽爬山虎、修竹、天竹、秋海棠等。叶翠，花冷，实鲜，高洁耐赏。

园林栽花与植树同一原则。背阴且能略受阳光之地栽植桂花、山茶之类。此二者开花一在秋，一在春初，都是群花未放之时，而姿态亦佳，掩映于奇石之间，冷隽异常。紫藤则入春后，一架绿荫，满树繁花，望之若珠光宝露。牡丹之作台，衬以纹石栏杆，实因牡丹宜高地向阳，兼以其花华丽，故不得不如此。他若玉兰、海棠、牡丹、桂花等同栽庭前，谐音为“玉堂富贵”，虽然命意已不适于今日，但在开花的季节与花彩的安排上，前人未始不无道理的。桃李宜植林，适于远眺，此在苏州，仅范围大的如留园、拙政园可以酌用之。

植物的布置，在苏州园林中有两个原则 ：第一，用同一种树，植之成林，如怡园听涛处植松，留园西部植枫，闻木樨香轩前植桂，但又必须考虑到高低疏密及与环境的关系。第二，用多种树同植，其配置如作画构图一样，更要注意树的方向及地势高低是否适宜于多种树性、树叶色彩的调和对比、常绿树与落叶树的配比、开花季节的先后、树叶形态、树的姿势、树与石的关系等，必须要做到片山多致，寸石生情，二者间是一个有机的联系才是。此外，更需注意植物与建筑物的式样、颜色的衬托，是否已做到“好花须映好楼台”的效果。水中植荷，似不宜多。荷多必减少水的面积，楼台缺少倒影，宜略点缀一二，亭亭玉立，摇曳生姿，隔水宛在水中央。据云，昆山顾氏园藕植于池中石板底，石板仅凿数洞，俾不使其自由繁殖。又有池底置缸，植荷其内，用意相同。

江南园林在装修、选石、陈列上极为讲究，而用色则以雅淡为主，这与北方皇家园林的金碧辉煌适成对比。江南住宅建筑所施色彩，在梁、枋、柱头皆用栗色，挂落用墨绿，有时柱头用黑色退光，都是一些冷色调，与白色墙面有着强烈的对比，而花影扶疏，又适当地调和了颜色的对比。且苏州园林皆与住宅相连，为养性读书之所，更应以清静为主。南宗山水画4，水墨浅绛，略施淡彩，秀逸天成，早已印在士大夫及文人画家的脑海中。在这种影响下，设计出来的园林当然不会用重彩贴金了。加以江南炎热，朱红等暖色亦在所非宜。这样，园林的轻巧外观，秀茂的花木，玲珑的山石，柔媚的流水，加之灰白的江南天色，都能相互匹配并调和，予人的感觉是淡雅幽静。(https://www.daowen.com)

中国园林还有一个特色，就是不论风雨晦明，在各种环境下，都能景色咸宜，予人不同的美感。如夏日的蕉廊、荷池，冬日的梅影、雪月，春日的繁花、丽日，秋日的红蓼、芦塘，虽四时之景不同，而景物无不适人。故有“松风听涛”“菰蒲闻雨”“月移花影”“雾失楼台”等景致。造景来达到这些效果，主要在于设计者有高度的文学艺术修养，使理想中的境界付之于实现，如对花影要考虑到粉墙，听风要考虑到松，听雨要考虑到荷叶，月色要考虑到柳梢，斜阳要考虑到漏窗，岁寒要考虑到梅竹，等等。安排一石一木，都寄托了丰富的情感，使得处处有情，面面生意，含蓄曲折，余味不尽。

注释：

1.李斗，清代文人，生卒年不详，著有《扬州画舫录》，其中有专章记述扬州园林的文字。

2.倪瓒（1301或1306—1374），元朝大画家，擅画水墨山水，自谓“逸笔草草，不求形似”，“聊写胸中逸气”。其“简中寓繁，似嫩实苍”的画风对造园颇多启发。

3.沈周（1427—1509），明朝画家，擅画山水，取景江南山川和园林景物，其画多具园林意境。

4.唐代，中国山水画开始盛行，有李思训父子着色山水及王维的写意、渲染画风。至明代，董其昌始议分南北二大宗派之说，并对南宗水墨写意推崇备至。

Elegance Arises from Principles Not Stereotypes

The design of gardens follows principles, not stereotypes.Detailed analyses based on these principles are as follows.

Albeit the limited coverage, the gardens in China south of Changjiang River, picturesque with unique rock formations and clear streams and ponds, are a reflection of the statement in Miscellany of Lüyuan Garden: “A garden, just like poetry, should be constructed on principles.”That is to say, the ingenious arrangement of rocks and water, pavilions and towers, halls and chambers, ponds and streams, flowerbeds and walkways should present the changing seasonal beauty of nature.The general layout and the utilization of space should be embodied in scenic sights as varied and continuous as possible.

There are different types of layouts.One type of layout uses water for its theme.Classical examples of this type follow the principle of “water flowing around rockeries and rockeries becoming alive because of water”.Normally, bodies of water are embellished with bridges over them, covered walkways around them or pavilions and towers near them.Islets are put in the middle of the water in the case of large gardens.Examples of this type include Wangshi Garden and Yiyuan Garden in Suzhou.In contrast, Changyuan Garden at Miaotang Alley, tiny in size, features a pond in the center surrounded by winding covered walkways, presenting a garden as exquisite as potted landscape.

It is crucial for water in a garden to have its sources which keep it from becoming a backwater.For a small garden to impress the visitor with the grandeur of infinity, the key lies in its proper arrangement.Here are two principles to follow.The first one is to choose a plot of irregular land for a pond which is then laid with islets in it and little bridges over it, presenting an inexhaustible vista.The second one consists in a special design of inlets and outlets of water with curves and forks.In this way, water flows here and there without an end, creating an effect of secrecy and depth.For a larger garden, this effect can be further enhanced by hiding outlets among water plants such as reeds.A good example is Liuyuan Garden in which outlets of a stream are hidden beneath a pavilion by water.Looking down at the water, one is fascinated by the seeming inexhaustibility of the stream which actually comes to an end underneath the pavilion.In the case of Canglang Pavilion which emphasizes the rockery, Buqi covered walkway suddenly rises higher and higher in the western part of the pavilion where when one looks down at the pond, he feels like standing on the edge of an abyss.Bridges in Yipu Garden in Suzhou and Yuyuan Garden in Shanghai are built almost at the same level as the water, thus creating an illusion that the rockeries on both sides are much higher than they really are.However, the bridge in Yiyuan Garden, though at a lower level than the rockery, looks a little too far away from the water.It is not difficult, therefore, to imagine how it looks for bridges to be built over a stream.This is why generations of designers have replaced some of them with stepping rocks, a great improvement towards delicacy and naturalness.Waterfalls are rare except Yanpu Waterfalls in Huanxiu Mountain Resort and in Wangshi Xiaoyuan (Wang’s Residence) in the city of Yangzhou.

A designer is more at ease to design a garden with lage stretches of water.Zhuozheng Garden, for instance, has nature-inspired characteristics that in themselves create an atmosphere of infinity and variety.The man-made rockeries in the center and slopes skirting meandering water and beaches make up a more natural landscape.The design of ponds varies from garden to garden.It is suitable for a large garden to have ponds scattered around the garden and for a small garden to have bodies of water gathered together.The gatheredtogether ponds are to be complemented by separation whereas scattered-around ponds are to be arranged with a focus.Wangshi Garden and Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou are two excellent examples in point.

A hall is designed by water, with water flowing in front and rockeries in the back.Similar to a pavilion by water, it looks as if drifting on water.Such a layout is seen in Yipu Garden in Suzhou.

Pavilions and towers of varying heights are also designed around water and rockeries in the center.But this arrangement is rare even in Suzhou with an exceptional case of the eastern part of Ouyuan Garden in Suzhou.

Another type of layout emphasizes rocks and mountains, a theme popular for Chinese gardens.A prime example is Huanxiu Mountain Resort, which, despite the lack of a water source or a depression, successfully achieves a vivid approximation of real mountains with a composition of fresh rock moss with verdant tress and grass, adding a feeling of vitality.

The use of rocks, during the Ming and early Qing Dynasties, emphasizes naturalness with only slight embellishments on existing conditions.Yellow stones from Suzhou, such as those for the two small rockeries in the center of Zhuozheng Garden and those underneath Xiuyi Pavilion are generally used.Though not as exquisitely curved as lake stones, the proper arrangement of yellow stones may turn out a unified entity, neither pretentious nor redundant.Lake stones in large chunks are used extensively in the gardens of the Qing Dynasty to achieve singularity.Gardens vie with each other on the amount of lake stones in their decoration and on the merits of a single rock peak.Nevertheless, a thoughtful plan always results in a natural design.Take Yiyuan Garden for example.Rocks from three abandoned gardens near Dongting Mountain were shaped into a magnificent peak.Another example is Huanxiu Mountain Resort, which was renovated during the Qianlong reign.Delicate ponds, deep natural streams and valleys, simple yet vigorous rocks are erected in a style characteristic of the Song Dynasty with winding water moistening the rocks.This is a typical garden in China south of Changjiang River.A designer will be at ease in his layout of piled-up rocks and rockeries when he keeps mountains and valleys in his mind.

Dependence on natural scenery with a variety of forms and styles requires flexibility in design which, nevertheless, is guided by principles, however latent.A designer must make painstaking efforts to study the Creator’s law, to observe natural scenes, to appreciate and comment on ancient works and to learn from hard lessons in order to make the classic prototype of gardens.It is a pity that the gardens built in Suzhou in the later periods mainly follow stereotyped patterns with the absence of overall planning.As a result, pavilions, towers, ponds and galleries are pieced together at random.In piling up rocks to build a garden, a peak or a rockery cannot always become as valuable as an antique without the mutual harmony with trees and flowers or complementary integration with buildings.This may well serve as a warning to designers today.

Apart from water, rocks, ponds and depressions, buildings like halls, chambers, terraces, pavilions, towers, galleries, alleys and covered walkways are also major constituents in Chinese gardens.Gardens in China south of Changjiang River are mainly characterized by tranquility and simplicity so much so that buildings are made delicate and exquisite to be agreeable.Consequently, a designer must take the location, the terrain and the outlook into account when designing buildings for his garden.Planning for a garden always starts with the hall, “facing the south, preferably with some arbor trees around just for the main hall”.Gardens in Suzhou such as Yuanxiang Hall of Zhuozheng Garden, and Hanbi Mountain Chamber of Liuyuan Garden all follow this rule.

Although there are no set rules on the arrangement of towers, terraces, pavilions and galleries, a designer should give priority to an overall planning and to harmonious integration with the natural terrain, and remain flexible in his layout of towers hidden among flowers and pavilions by the water.Classical works on garden design such as The Craft of Gardens, Superfluous Things and Notes of Construction had discussions about the above-mentioned rules and principles of garden design, but they also made it explicit that these rules and principles should not be followed rigidly.Let us examine Zhuozheng Garden more closely.When looked from above, the buildings in the garden seem to be laid out in a way to fit the natural surroundings; yet they are properly placed to follow certain rules of the direction, both vertically and horizontally.They look largely cheerful with a variety of shapes: squares, rectangles, polygons, and circles, and with a variety of roof patterns: a gable and hip roof, a flush gable roof, an overhanging gable roof, a pyramidal roof, but without a five-ridged roof.A “clay uprising”usually has a low curved modillion that rises up and looks cheerful.Elaborately decorated pendants hanging from the eaves and the slightly bending Wuwang Support all constitute parts of a complete whole.A good example of the treatment of the façade can be seen in the central part of Liuyuan Garden.Looking over from Wenmuxixiang Gallery eastward, the main structure in the paired scene is Quxi Tower with a two-layered gable and hip roof.The lower layer of the roof is constructed in the shape of a stage with its edge, parallel to water, as the borderline of the upper layer.As a result, its peak does not look out of proportion, although the roof consists of two layers.In particular, the three buildings of Quxi Tower, West Tower, and Qingfengchi Pavilion are deliberately placed out of order, but their roofs are along a central line and their unique features create a perfect harmony with the towering peaks and lakeside rocks beneath.The uniqueness of Suzhou gardens lies in the old trees that lean over the water, and a nearby wall with brick-framed ornamental perforated windows which strike a sharp contrast with the wall itself, and the pale hue of scattered flowers—all reflected in the water below and creating a multidimensional scene of unsurpassed beauty.Mingse Tower and Hanbi Mountain Chamber, the former with a curved ridge gable and hip roof and the latter with a curved ridge flush gable roof, neighbors to each other, cannot avoid being treated differently, with one of the two facades of Mingse Tower constructed in the usual way, but the other replaced with a vertical ridge, so as to attain a dynamic diversity.In the case of Changyuan Garden whose overly narrow landscape is out of proportion with the pond in the center, making a pavilion by water impossible, and a pavilion with a single gable and hip roof is laid out eventually.In fact, this arrangement follows the same principle mentioned above.In the west, Shuxiao Pavilion and Zhile Pavilion are also examples of disproportion, the former too small to be delicate, and the latter spoiled by its roof whose flowery pattern is so overblown as to be clumsy.In Suzhou, pavilions built in the late Qing Dynasty lack stability when an exceedingly tall roof is disproportionally supported by notably thin pillars.They are unlike gardens from the Ming Dynasty, whose low roofs are in proportion to the overall layout.In a word, the architectural features must be meticulously designed so that they are integrated and in proportion with each other to form a harmonious whole.To achieve variety in the layout of any given construction, the designer must balance sparseness with density, rounded curves with straight lines, even for buildings with arched doors and curved windows.It is appropriate for a small gallery to have one or two or two and a half spans, as long as it fits in with the natural terrain and is put on a proper location in the garden.For instance, Haitangchunwu of Zhuozheng Garden has two spans, one bigger than the other, with explicitly expressed emphasis.Yifeng Gallery of Liuyuan Garden has two and a half spans with the subtlety of design lying in the half span.It is mandatory that a designer pay close attention to the relativity of height, location, and balance of complexity and simplicity in constructions.The Wan’s Garden (formerly Ren’s Garden) at Wangxianma Alley in Suzhou is small indeed, but its separate study adds to its tranquility.Its interior decorations along with those found in the West and East Flower Halls of Ren’s Residence and the Flower Hall of Gu's Residence at Tieping Alley, in Wangshi Garden, in Cheng’s Garden at Xibaihua Alley and in the Flower Halls of the Wu’s Residence at Dashitou Alley are all first class among the gardens in Suzhou.Hardly any decorations are left behind of the Yiyuan Garden today, but what is special about the land boats in China south of Changjiang River is their superbly elaborate interior decorations that are well preserved until today.

Covered walkways are as important to gardens as arteries and veins to human bodies.Nowadays covered double walkways are, more often than not, found in gardens in Suzhou.A double walkway consists of two footpaths separated with a wall in between, ornamented with perforated windows, so that pedestrians can walk on both sides.These covered walkways are mostly found in unfenced gardens, such as the riverside covered walkway in Canglang Pavilion.Double walkways also serve the purpose of landscape division, visual field enlargement, or a preparation at the entrance as exemplified by the double walkway of Yiyuan Garden, obviously built in imitation of the one in Canglang Pavilion.Covered walkways, which also provide shelter from the chill of the wind from the north and the broiling sun from the west elicit an aesthetic appeal when sunlight is screened through the minutely wrought patterns of the ornamental perforations in the windows.Covered walkways differ in their locations and styles—some are on land while others are by water, and some are straight while others are winding.Rigid, straight covered walkways are not recommended because they create a sense of affectation as do excessively crooked walkways.The covered walkways by water and the small pavilions in Wangshi Garden and the western part of Zhuozheng Garden seem to excel with their perforated bricks as supports underneath.In the old days, winding footpaths lay near and far and river banks were lined with green willows in Zhuozheng Garden, so it is reasonable for there to be wooden railings on the side by water and Wuwang Supports on the other side.A fine covered walkway by water, such as the one in the western part of Zhuozheng Garden, has graceful curves and well-designed gradient slopes, just like the walkway mentioned in The Craft of Gardens as “a floating cross”which emphasizes its fine structure.The lake stones and plantains at the turning points, supplemented with a small pavilion, generates a sense of variety.Covered walkways over rockeries are mainly used as side walls or as complementary decorations in Shizilin Garden, Liuyuan Garden or Zhuozheng Garden in the gardens of Suzhou.When designing such a covered walkway, close attention should be paid to the relationship between the gradient and height of a rockery to avoid a top-heavy appearance.In a landscape with a varied width, covered walkways may run along a slope on one side or on one side and on two sides alternatively as in the one winding up a rockery in the western part of Liuyuan Garden.No special efforts have to be made at the turning points of a crooked covered walkway, where such odds and ends as bamboo strips, pebbles or plantains can serve the purpose of creating a simple scene.According to Li Dou1, “A covered walkway of a wood structure embedded with bricks is called a Xianglang; a covered walkway that winds and undulates with the landscape and serves as a place to take strolls is called a covered strolling walkway...a covered walkway in a bamboo grove is a covered bamboo walkway and a covered walkway by water is a covered water walkway.Tops and corners of buildings are spotted occasionally among trees and flowers and from across a pond.These buildings are erected either by cliffs, or are made look risky, or span on a wood bridge under which boats go along a stream.Covered walkways are built among halls and pavilions and towers, providing easy access among those places.Covered walkways are aesthetically dependent on their railings, which are as good as a short-sleeved dress to reveal partially the bare arms of a lady who has a stylish slender body.Boards are placed on the supports of the railing as flying chairs, known as Beauty’s Lazybacks, which mostly appear in covered walkways near galleries.”His detailed descriptions of covered walkways may be used for reference.Today there are even covered plantain walkways when plantains are planted beyond the walkway, and covered willow walkways with willows by the walkway.Walking through a covered walkway on a summer day, one feels the coolness brought by the green which disperse the summer heat.In winter when the sun shines through leaves, one finds the cozy warmth comforting.In ancient times a covered walkway could be used to display paintings, thus it was called a covered painting walkway, whereas today stone strips with poetic lines are embedded in the walls—an excellent use of the covered walkway.

In a garden, bridges over water are just like covered walkways on land in their importance.Bridges commonly seen in gardens in Suzhou are girder bridges and are classified as straight bridges, bridges of nine turns, bridges of five turns, bridges of three turns and arched bridges.In terms of elevation, some bridges are level with the banks but above the water surface while others sink between the banks and float above the water; in terms of age, the latter are comparatively older such as those in Yipu Garden and Yiyuan Garden in Suzhou, Jichang Garden in Wuxi and gardens in Changshu.Two effect are achieved in these bridges.Firstly, when walking on a bridge that is level with the banks, one feels as if he is stepping on waves.The water seems more thrilling and the bridge really dangerous; secondly, a bridge lower than the banks emphasizes the sharp contrast in height between the bridge and their surrounding rockeries and buildings.An example is Jichang Garden in Wuxi where the rockery is heaped into a flat-topped hillock in front of the background scenery of Huishan Hill, and underneath in the secluded valley are contrasting bridges, all of which display the high standard of garden design in the Ming Dynasty.It is improper for contemporary girder bridges to be casually placed without giving proper considerations to the natural lie of the land nor to its size.Especially important in the design of railings is the overall management of their height and style relative to the whole bridge.Bridges such as the little bridge in Yipu Garden and Yihong Bridge in Zhuozheng Garden are superbly designed.The railings along the bridge of three turns and bridge of five turns in Zhuozheng Garden are in proportion, but it is a pity to have had the bridges themselves situated a little too high.Between Daishuang Pavilion and Xuexiangyunwei Pavilion is a bridge which is made of just one flagstone and does not have any railings; it is a fine structure that best expresses a natural simplicity.The other type of bridge is a small arched bridge as found in Shizilin Garden and Wangshi Garden.Between the two types, the latter is more preferable than the former, as an arched bridge is not recommended in the middle of ponds.When an arched bridge is situated over a small body of water, the bridge looks large and solid instead of hollow and translucent.The small arched bridge in Wangshi Garden is at the eastern end of a ponds.When one looks to the east from the western end of the bridge, he sees interesting reflections in the vast expanse of water; likewise, when one looks westward form the eastern end of the bridge, he sees the pavilions and towers also reflected in the water.With regard to a brook, the “step stones”used to cross brooks mentioned in The Craft of Gardens express a harmony with nature much better than a bridge does.Unfortunately all this seems to have fallen out of favor nowadays.

According to A Leisurely Country Life, “a footpath in the courtyard tends to bend”; and “a road beside the house tends to fork”.Paths that we see in gardens in Suzhou are just so built.The pathways in the central part of Zhuozheng Garden still remain in the old style of the Ming Dynasty: they bend and turn to highlight the main parts in accordance with the natural features.Because of the small size of Huanxiu Mountain Resort, little paths have to wind up and down the rockery.These winding paths are so designed that they lead to the attractive and fascinating scenery.However, paths in Shizilin Garden are made to wind unnaturally, thus puzzling the visitor with their complexity.

Paving is also important in the garden design.Due attention should be paid to the paving be it for paths in front of the halls, for winding paths or for main roads.In the gardens in Suzhou today, some main roads are built with bricks-on-edge pieced together in a variety of patterns.Gravel is used for other main roads, whereas paths in front of the halls are arranged in a variety of patterns with crockery and china pieces.Patterns using pebbles or a mixture of pebbles and china pieces are known as “Huajie”(colorful land) and are much more delicate and exquisite than those mentioned above, a fine example of which is found in Liuyuan Garden.Paths made of stones veined with crystals are used in front of the halls; they have two types of structures.One type is made of rocks veined with crystals which are laid flat on the ground as on the pathway in front of Yuanxiang Hall in Zhuozheng Garden.This type of pathway has a charming touch of whimsy, but a problem with it is its lack of steadiness.The other type is also made of rocks veined with crystals, but where the rocks meet, they are put in a hooked way.This technique makes the paving process difficult, but the paving is firm and in elegant order as found on the pathway in front of the halls of Hanbi Mountain Resort in Liuyuan Garden.As for the door-steps for halls like those in front of Yuanxiang Hall in Zhuozheng Garden and Wufengxian Pavilion in Liuyuan Garden, they are piled up with stones of natural shapes and therefore are full of wild fun.

Some walls in gardens are made of wild stones of different shapes, polished bricks, perforated bricks and others are white-washed.Nowadays in Suzhou, white-washed walls are most common.Some external walls have openwork windows at the top whereas internal walls have openwork windows but embedded in brickframes.These are known as flowery shadows on white-washed walls.Walls of polished bricks are sparingly used for buildings in a garden.Usually, nine out of ten garden gates are embedded in patterns of water-polished bricks such as the gates in Zhuozheng Garden.Walls made of stones of different shapes are only used for the lower parts of walls.In Xiyuan Garden, decorated walls over water are used to separate bodies of water, which is unique indeed.

Couplets and tablets are indispensable decorations used in a Chinese garden.As a habitat of a social and cultural elite, Suzhou has invariably had its gardens built with the collaboration of writers and artists so that everything from a wood to a valley to a single pavilion or a summerhouse bears descriptions in beautiful and elegant language, stimulating the interest of visitors and adding historical value.For example, both Yuanxiang Hall and Liuting Belvedere in Zhuozheng Garden emphasize the traditional appreciation of the lotus; however, they are named after different lines of poetry: the former meaning “fragrant in the distance”is after the line of “getting more delicately fragrant in the distance”by Zhou Dunyi in the Northern Song Dynasty, while the latter meaning “keep to listen to”, is after a poem written by Li Shangyin in the Tang Dynasty: “The withered lotuses are kept to listen to the rain as it falls.”Wenmuxixiang Gallery in Liuyuan Garden and Haitangchun Yard in Zhuozheng Garden are named after the trees planted there.It is characteristic of Chinese gardens to express an appreciation of Chinese culture and literature.

Inscriptions are interspersed in every garden in Suzhou with Yiyuan Garden displaying the richest collection of the enchanting Song poetry.To prevent erosion from strong wind, most of the inscriptions are carved in intaglio on ginkgo wood plates and filled with copper green powder, or carved in intaglio on wood plates and painted, usually in a cold color.Other inscriptions are carved on bricks, which look elegantly clean and delightful.Calligraphic styles of seal characters, clerical scripts and running scripts instead of regular scripts are mostly used because of their stylistic primitive simplicity which matches the natural scenery in a garden.

It goes without saying that planting trees is of vital importance in gardens.A variety are found in gardens in Suzhou such as elm, maple, and poplar in Zhuozheng Garden; in the central part of Liuyuan Garden there are gingko trees and over the rockery in the western part are maples.As Yiyuan Garden covers a relatively small area, cassia, pine, and white bark pine trees are mainly planted there.Of note is the white bark pine tree whose primitive simplicity stands out despite its small size.Other trees found here and there in the gardens are those with slower growth—pine, plum, palm, and box trees.Then, since high walls in these small gardens keep large parts of the landscape in the shade, coldresistant plants such as privet, palm, and bamboo trees are preferable.Tall trees like pine and cedar planted with big rocks to keep perfect harmony; and evergreen shade-bearing grass is planted in crevices in the rocks or under step stones.Because there are more evergreen plants than deciduous, gardens are green all the year round, thus eliminating the usual emptiness in autumn and winter.Tall trees like hackberry, elm, locust, beech, and maple, which are trimmed every year, are picturesque with simplicity.Exposed roots of these trees are remarkablely beautiful, especially those of the elm, maple, and poplar trees, whose trunks become hollow but the barks remain.When the old branches sprout, they create an impressive verdant scene.At present, there are mainly two ways of planting trees on rockeries in Suzhou: the first way being planting big trees only at the top and at foot of a rockery without growing any small plants near them so that people can admire the harmonious beauty between exposed roots and rocks as those seen Liuyuan Garden and Zhuozheng Garden; the second one being planting trees, at the top and foot of a rockery, among clumps of bamboos and bushes, and growing creepers and vines by rocks, giving an impression of greenness, such as that found in Canglang Pavilion and Zhuozheng Garden.The former represents a pursuit of the graceful painting style of Ni Zan2, while the latter reveals a longing for the melancholy painting nature of Shen Zhou3.Willows, bamboos, and reeds grow in the low-lying areas by lakes and rivers, and creepers, bamboos, and begonias in the shade of the nearby walls.These plants bear green leaves, cool flowers, and colorful fruits with superb elegance.

Growing flowers follows the same principle as planting trees.Flowers such as osmanthus and camellias which bloom alternately in autumn and in early spring are planted in shady places that sunshine rarely reaches.These gracefully shaped flowers hidden among the grotesque rocks look usually pretty and tasteful.In spring, the flowers and leaves of the wisteria are like brilliant jewels blotting out the land.Because of people’s love for the gracefulness of their blossoms, peonies are traditionally placed on terraces enhanced by marble railings in the background, bathed in sunshine on a high land.Other flowers such as magnolias, crab apples, peonies and osmanthus are planted in front of halls because in the Chinese language, they are collectively homophonic to “Yu Tang Fu Gui”meaning “wealthy and magnificent”which is not really appropriate for the present day though; but the garden design makes much sense in the arrangement of alternation of blooming seasons and the match of colors.Peaches and plums are planted in groves for enjoyment over a distance, and they are carefully arranged in larger gardens like Liuyuan Garden and Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou.

Two principles guide the configuration of plants in the gardens of Suzhou.The first dictates trees of the same kind be planted in groves such as the pine tree grove at Tingtao in Yiyuan Garden; the maple tree grove in the western part of Liuyuan Garden; and the osmanthus tree grove in front of Wenmuxixiang Gallery.In doing so, attention must be paid to the interrelationships between the height and density of the trees and their environment.The second principle requires trees of different kinds mixed together to form a picturesque scene.Here attention must be paid to the direction the trees are facing; the blending of the different kinds of trees with the landscape; the contrast and combination of colors; the ratio between evergreen and deciduous trees; the alternation of the blooming periods of the different trees; the shapes of the leaves and of the trees; and the relationship between the trees and rocks.A designer must make every endeavor to build a natural link between rocks and plants so much so that when supplemented with plants a rock may produce scenes of various styles and a stone may stir strong emotions.Attention should also be paid to the coordination of the patterns and colors of the flowers with the surrounding buildings to achieve the effect as described in the line: “stylish flowers to go with stylish buildings.”Lotus flowers should not be grown in too much abundance; otherwise, they will reduce the size of the body of water, resulting in fewer reflections of buildings in water.Therefore, only a few slim and graceful lotus plants are needed to create a picturesque scene in the center of a pool.It is recorded that in the garden of the Gu’s Residence, lotus flowers are rooted underneath slates with several holes to control the growth.Crocks are said to be placed at the bottom of the pond in which to plant the lotuses, another way to serve the same purpose.

The designers of gardens in China south of Changjiang River are extremely particular about the decorations and rock selections used in a layout, for they like to emphasize soft light colors that have a gentle and simple appeal.This is in sharp contrast to the splendid and magnificent royal gardens in the north.The beams, crossbeams, and column caps of residences in China south of Changjiang River are maroon in color and hanging fascias are greenish black.Sometimes the column caps are matted with a black color or other similar cool colors to form a sharp contrast with the white walls with scattered flowers used to soften the contrast.Serenity is the main consideration of building gardens in Suzhou, for the culture of the mind is the purpose of gardens.The avoidance of heavy colors is an influence from the landscape paintings of the Southern School4.And moreover, warm colors do not go well with the warm climate in China south of Changjiang River.In this way, the deft outlook, luxuriant plants, exquisite rocks, gentle rivers and the gray-white sky of China south of Changjiang River all fit well into an excellent frame, giving an impression of simplicity, elegance and tranquility.

Another characteristic of Chinese gardens is that even in inclement weather, they remain beautiful and inviting.Although the variation of the scenery from season to season never fails to appeal: the covered plantain walkways and lotus pools in summer; the plum blossoms and snowflakes in winter, the colorful flowers and sunny days in spring; and the Polygonum orientale and reed ponds in autumn.This is how scenes as Wind Sounds Through Pine Waves, A Lonely Cattail in Rain, Shadows of Flowers in Moonlight and Pavilions Lost in Fog come into effect.Such scenarios result chiefly from artistic ideals materialized into the reality.All of these vistas are taken into consideration: the relationship of the shadows of flowers against white-washed walls; the sound of the wind blowing in through the pine trees; the ticktack sound of rain drops falling on lotus leaves; the brilliance of the moon illuminating the willow branches; the light of the setting sun perforating through lattice windows; and the year-end chill incapable of intimating the plum blossom and bamboos.Even the arrangement of a rock or tree is saturated with rich sentiments.

Notes:

1.Li Dou, a man of letters in the Qing Dynasty (dates of birth and death unidentified), was the author of Records of Pleasure Boats of Yangzhou which describes gardens in Yangzhou in a chapter.

2.Ni Zan (1301 or 1306-1374) was a great painter of the Yuan Dynasty who was good at painting landscapes.He described his paintings as being completed “with free and casual strokes, and not restricted by shapes of objects”and “just to express my free mind”.His painting style of “complexity embedded in simplicity”and “sophistication embedded in immaturity”has great influence upon the garden design.

3.Shen Zhou (1427-1509) was a painter of the Ming Dynasty.He was good at painting landscapes, especially mountains and water and gardens in China south of Changjiang River.Therefore, most of his paintings were completed with artistic motifs of gardens .

4.Landscape paintings were gaining popularity in the Tang Dynasty with leading painters such as Li Sixun and his son who painted landscapes in color and Wang Wei who developed a painting style of freehand brushwork and applying colors to paintings.In the Ming Dynasty , Dong Qichang advocated two schools for the classification of different styles in painting: a southern school and a northern school; and he was an ardent supporter of the southern school of freehand wash painting.