参考文献
［1］Noble A，Thomas A，Johnson R，et al.心血管系统.第2版.王廷槐，译.北京：北京大学医学出版社，2010.
［2］Katz A M.Physiology of the heart.5th ed.Philadelphia：LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS＆WILKINS，2011.
［3］Litvinukova M，Talavera-Lopez C，Maatz H，et al.Cells of the adult human heart.Nature，2020，588（7838）：466-472.
［4］Cho S，Discher D E，Leong K W，et al.Challenges and opportunities for the next generation of cardiovascular tissue engineering.Nat Methods，2022，19（9）：1064-1071.
［5］Wang L，Yu P，Zhou B，et al.Single-cell reconstruction of the adult human heart during heart failure and recovery reveals the cellular landscape underlying cardiac function.Nat Cell Biol，2020，22（1）：108-119.
［6］Mummery C L，Zhang J，Ng E S，et al.Differentiation of human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells to cardiomyocytes：A methods overview.Circ Res，2012，111（3）：344-358.
［7］Lian X，Hsiao C，Wilson G，et al.Robust cardiomyocyte differentiation from human pluripotent stem cells via temporal modulation of canonical wnt signaling.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A，2012，109（27）：E1848-1857.
［8］Zhang P，Huang J J，Ou-Yang K F，et al.Minimal contribution of IP3R2 in cardiac differentiation and derived ventricular-like myocytes from human embryonic stem cells.Acta Pharmacol Sin，2020，41（12）：1576-1586.
［9］Luo X L，Zhang P，Liu X，et al.Myosin light chain 2 marks differentiating ventricular cardiomyocytes derived from human embryonic stem cells.Pflugers Arch，2021，473（7）：991-1007.
［10］Zhang H，Tian L，Shen M，et al.Generation of quiescent cardiac fibroblasts from human induced pluripotent stem cells for in vitro modeling of cardiac fibrosis.Circ Res，2019，125（5）：552-566.
［11］Wang K，Lin R Z，Hong X C，et al.Robust differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into endothelial cells via temporal modulation of ETV2 with modified mrna.Sci Adv，2020，6（30）.
［12］Patsch C，Challet-Meylan L，Thoma E C，et al.Generation of vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells from human pluripotent stem cells.Nat Cell Biol，2015，17（8）：994.
［13］Bao X，Lian X，Qian T，et al.Directed differentiation and long-term maintenance of epicardial cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells under fully defined conditions.Nat Protoc，2017，12（9）：1890-1900.
［14］Zhang D，Shadrin I Y，Lam J，et al.Tissue-engineered cardiac patch for advanced functional maturation of human esc-derived cardiomyocytes.Biomaterials，2013，34（23）：5813-5820.
［15］Valarmathi M T，Fuseler J W，Davis J M，et al.A novel human tissue-engineered 3-D functional vascularized cardiac muscle construct.Front Cell Dev Biol，2017，5（2）：2.
［16］Louch W E，Sheehan K A，Wolska B M.Methods in cardiomyocyte isolation，culture，and gene transfer.J Mol Cell Cardiol，2011，51（3）：288-298.
［17］Giacomelli E，Meraviglia V，Campostrini G，et al.Human-ipsc-derived cardiac stromal cells enhance maturation in 3D cardiac microtissues and reveal non-cardiomyocyte contributions to heart disease.Cell Stem Cell，2020，26（6）：862-879.
［18］Lemoine M D，Mannhardt I，Breckwoldt K，et al.Human ipsc-derived cardiomyocytes cultured in 3d engineered heart tissue show physiological upstroke velocity and sodium current density.Sci Rep，2017，7（1）：5464.
［19］Ronaldson-Bouchard K，Ma S P，Yeager K，et al.Advanced maturation of human cardiac tissue grown from pluripotent stem cells.Nature，2018，556（7700）：239-243.
［20］Ruan J L，Tulloch N L，Razumova M V，et al.Mechanical stress conditioning and electrical stimulation promote contractility and force maturation of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived human cardiac tissue.Circulation，2016，134（20）：1557-1567.
［21］Nunes S S，Miklas J W，Liu J，et al.Biowire：A platform for maturation of human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.Nat Methods，2013，10（8）：781-787.
［22］Lu K，Seidel T，Cao-Ehlker X，et al.Progressive stretch enhances growth and maturation of 3D stem-cell-derived myocardium.Theranostics，2021，11（13）：6138-6153.
［23］Huebsch N，Charrez B，Neiman G，et al.Metabolically driven maturation of human-inducedpluripotent-stem-cell-derived cardiac microtissues on microfluidic chips.Nat Biomed Eng，2022，6（4）：372-388.
［24］Gao L，Kupfer M E，Jung J P，et al.Myocardial tissue engineering with cells derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells and a native-like，high-resolution，3-dimensionally printed scaffold.Circ Res，2017，120（8）：1318-1325.
［25］Zhang D，Pu W T.Exercising engineered heart muscle to maturity.Nat Rev Cardiol，2018，15（7）：383-384.
［26］Geisse N A，Sheehy S P，Parker K K.Control of myocyte remodeling in vitro with engineered substrates.In vitro cellular＆developmental biology.Animal，2009，45（7）：343-350.
［27］Feinberg A W，Feigel A，Shevkoplyas S S，et al.Muscular thin films for building actuators and powering devices.Science，2007，317（5843）：1366-1370.
［28］Lee K Y，Park S J，Matthews D G，et al.An autonomously swimming biohybrid fish designed with human cardiac biophysics.Science，2022，375（6581）：639-647.
［29］Park S J，Zhang D，Qi Y，et al.Insights into the pathogenesis of catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia from engineered human heart tissue.Circulation，2019，140（5）：390-404.
［30］Gong Y，Chen Z，Yang L，et al.Intrinsic color sensing system allows for real-time observable functional changes on human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.ACS nano，2020，14（7）：8232-8246.
［31］Alonzo M，El Khoury R，Nagiah N，et al.3D biofabrication of a cardiac tissue construct for sustained longevity and function.ACS applied materials＆interfaces，2022，14（19）：21800-21813.
［32］Hinson J T，Chopra A，Nafissi N，et al.Heart disease.Titin mutations in ips cells define sarcomere insufficiency as a cause of dilated cardiomyopathy.Science，2015，349（6251）：982-986.
［33］Xu H，Liu G，Gong J，et al.Investigating and resolving cardiotoxicity induced by COVID-19 treatments using human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes and engineered heart tissues.Adv Sci（Weinh），2022，9（30）：e2203388.
［34］Wang E Y，Rafatian N，Zhao Y，et al.Biowire model of interstitial and focal cardiac fibrosis.ACS central science，2019，5（7）：1146-1158.
［35］Tiburcy M，Hudson J E，Balfanz P，et al.Defined engineered human myocardium with advanced maturation for applications in heart failure modeling and repair.Circulation，2017，135（19）：1832-1847.
［36］Boheler K R，Czyz J，Tweedie D，et al.Differentiation of pluripotent embryonic stem cells into cardiomyocytes.Circulation Research，2002，91（3）：189-201.
［37］Kehat I，Kenyagin-Karsenti D，Snir M，et al.Human embryonic stem cells can differentiate into myocytes with structural and functional properties of cardiomyocytes.J Clin Invest，2001，108（3）：407-414.
［38］Drakhlis L，Biswanath S，Farr C M，et al.Human heart-forming organoids recapitulate early heart and foregut development.Nat Biotechnol，2021，39（6）：737-746.
［39］Hofbauer P，Jahnel S M，Papai N，et al.Cardioids reveal self-organizing principles of human cardiogenesis.Cell，2021，184（12）：3299-3317.
［40］Lewis-Israeli Y R，Wasserman A H，Gabalski M A，et al.Self-assembling human heart organoids for the modeling of cardiac development and congenital heart disease.Nat Commun，2021，12（1）：5142.
［41］Brazhkina O，Park J H，Park H J，et al.Designing a 3d printing based auxetic cardiac patch with hipsc-cms for heart repair.Journal of cardiovascular development and disease，2021，8（12）.
［42］Bejleri D，Streeter B W，Nachlas A L Y，et al.A bioprinted cardiac patch composed of cardiacspecific extracellular matrix and progenitor cells for heart repair.Adv Healthc Mater，2018，7（23）：e1800672.
［43］Noor N，Shapira A，Edri R，et al.3d printing of personalized thick and perfusable cardiac patches and hearts.Adv Sci（Weinh），2019，6（11）：1900344.
［44］Lee A，Hudson A R，Shiwarski D J，et al.3d bioprinting of collagen to rebuild components of the human heart.Science，2019，365（6452）：482-487.
［45］Rossi G，Broguiere N，Miyamoto M，et al.Capturing cardiogenesis in gastruloids.Cell Stem Cell，2021，28（2）：230-240.e236.
［46］Farzamfar S，Nazeri N，Salehi M，et al.Will nanotechnology bring new hope for stem cell therapy？Cells，tissues，organs，2018，206（4-5）：229-241.
［47］Cashman T J，Josowitz R，Johnson B V，et al.Human engineered cardiac tissues created using induced pluripotent stem cells reveal functional characteristics of braf-mediated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.PloS one，2016，11（1）：e0146697.
［48］Wang E Y，Kuzmanov U，Smith J B，et al.An organ-on-a-chip model for pre-clinical drug evaluation in progressive non-genetic cardiomyopathy.J Mol Cell Cardiol，2021，160：97-110.(https://www.daowen.com)
［49］Mosqueira D，Mannhardt I，Bhagwan J R，et al.Crispr/cas9 editing in human pluripotent stem cell-cardiomyocytes highlights arrhythmias，hypocontractility，and energy depletion as potential therapeutic targets for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.Eur Heart J，2018，39（43）：3879-3892.
［50］Zhao Y，Rafatian N，Feric N T，et al.A platform for generation of chamber-specific cardiac tissues and disease modeling.Cell，2019，176（4）：913-927.
［51］Goldfracht I，Protze S，Shiti A，et al.Generating ring-shaped engineered heart tissues from ventricular and atrial human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.Nat Commun，2020，11（1）：75.
［52］Bliley J M，Vermeer M，Duffy R M，et al.Dynamic loading of human engineered heart tissue enhances contractile function and drives a desmosome-linked disease phenotype.Science translational medicine，2021，13（603）.
［53］Ma Z，Koo S，Finnegan M A，et al.Three-dimensional filamentous human diseased cardiac tissue model.Biomaterials，2014，35（5）：1367-1377.
［54］McCain M L，Sheehy S P，Grosberg A，et al.Recapitulating maladaptive，multiscale remodeling of failing myocardium on a chip.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A，2013，110（24）：9770-9775.
［55］Wang G，McCain M L，Yang L，et al.Modeling the mitochondrial cardiomyopathy of barth syndrome with induced pluripotent stem cell and heart-on-chip technologies.Nature medicine，2014，20（6）：616-623.
［56］Yadid M，Lind J U，Ardona H A M，et al.Endothelial extracellular vesicles contain protective proteins and rescue ischemia-reperfusion injury in a human heart-on-chip.Science translational medicine，2020，12（565）.
［57］Filippo Buono M，von Boehmer L，Strang J，et al.Human cardiac organoids for modeling genetic cardiomyopathy.Cells，2020，9（7）.
［58］Feng W，Schriever H，Jiang S，et al.Computational profiling of hipsc-derived heart organoids reveals chamber defects associated with nkx2-5 deficiency.Commun Biol，2022，5（1）：399.
［59］Daly A C，Davidson M D，Burdick J A.3d bioprinting of high cell-density heterogeneous tissue models through spheroid fusion within self-healing hydrogels.Nat Commun，2021，12（1）：753.
［60］Richards D J，Li Y，Kerr C M，et al.Human cardiac organoids for the modelling of myocardial infarction and drug cardiotoxicity.Nat Biomed Eng，2020，4（4）：446-462.
［61］Hoang P，Kowalczewski A，Sun S，et al.Engineering spatial-organized cardiac organoids for developmental toxicity testing.Stem Cell Reports，2021，16（5）：1228-1244.
［62］Archer C R，Sargeant R，Basak J，et al.Characterization and validation of a human 3D cardiac microtissue for the assessment of changes in cardiac pathology.Sci Rep，2018，8（1）：10160.
［63］Mills R J，Parker B L，Quaife-Ryan G A，et al.Drug screening in human psc-cardiac organoids identifies pro-proliferative compounds acting via the mevalonate pathway.Cell Stem Cell，2019，24（6）：895-907.
［64］Tian Y，Tsujisaka Y，Li V Y，et al.Immunosuppressants tacrolimus and sirolimus revert the cardiac antifibrotic properties of p38-mapk inhibition in 3d-multicellular human ipsc-heart organoids.Front Cell Dev Biol，2022，10：1001453.
［65］Mohamed T M A，Moslehi J，Satin J.Editorial：Recent advances in cardiotoxicity testing.Front Pharmacol，2021，12：798189.
［66］Koivisto M，Tolvanen T A，Toimela T，et al.Functional human cell-based vascularised cardiac tissue model for biomedical research and testing.Sci Rep，2022，12（1）：13459.
［67］Bergmann O，Bhardwaj R D，Bernard S，et al.Evidence for cardiomyocyte renewal in humans.Science，2009，324（5923）：98-102.
［68］Weinberger F，Breckwoldt K，Pecha S，et al.Cardiac repair in guinea pigs with human engineered heart tissue from induced pluripotent stem cells.Science translational medicine，2016，8（363）：363ra148.
［69］Jackman C P，Ganapathi A M，Asfour H，et al.Engineered cardiac tissue patch maintains structural and electrical properties after epicardial implantation.Biomaterials，2018，159：48-58.
［70］Gao L，Gregorich Z R，Zhu W，et al.Large cardiac muscle patches engineered from human induced-pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac cells improve recovery from myocardial infarction in swine.Circulation，2018，137（16）：1712-1730.
［71］董尔丹，张幼怡.血管生物学.第2版.北京：北京大学医学出版社，2014.
［72］Creager M A，Beckman J A，Loscalzo J.血管医学.2nd ed.王宏宇，译.北京：北京大学医学出版社，2019.
［73］Orlova V V，Drabsch Y，Freund C，et al.Functionality of endothelial cells and pericytes from human pluripotent stem cells demonstrated in cultured vascular plexus and zebrafish xenografts.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol，2014，34（1）：177-186.
［74］Wimmer R A，Leopoldi A，Aichinger M，et al.Generation of blood vessel organoids from human pluripotent stem cells.Nat Protoc，2019，14（11）：3082-3100.
［75］Liu C，Niu K，Xiao Q.Updated perspectives on vascular cell specification and pluripotent stem cell-derived vascular organoids for studying vasculopathies.Cardiovasc Res，2022，118（1）：97-114.
［76］Wimmer R A，Leopoldi A，Aichinger M，et al.Human blood vessel organoids as a model of diabetic vasculopathy.Nature，2019，565（7740）：505-510.
［77］Kusuma S，Shen Y I，Hanjaya-Putra D，et al.Self-organized vascular networks from human pluripotent stem cells in a synthetic matrix.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A，2013，110（31）：12601-12606.
［78］Colunga T，Hayworth M，Kress S，et al.Human pluripotent stem cell-derived multipotent vascular progenitors of the mesothelium lineage have utility in tissue engineering and repair.Cell Rep，2019，26（10）：2566-2579.
［79］Baptista P M，Siddiqui M M，Lozier G，et al.The use of whole organ decellularization for the generation of a vascularized liver organoid.Hepatology，2011，53（2）：604-617.
［80］Zhu J J，Wang Y T，Zhong L N，et al.Advances in tissue engineering of vasculature through three-dimensional bioprinting.Dev Dynam，2021，250（12）：1717-1738.
［81］Huh D，Matthews B D，Mammoto A，et al.Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip.Science，2010，328（5986）：1662-1668.
［82］Deosarkar S P，Prabhakarpandian B，Wang B，et al.A novel dynamic neonatal blood-brain barrier on a chip.PloS one，2015，10（11）：e0142725.
［83］Liu X，Fang J，Huang S，et al.Tumor-on-a-chip：From bioinspired design to biomedical application.Microsyst Nanoeng，2021，7（1）：50.
［84］Kim C，Kasuya J，Jeon J，et al.A quantitative microfluidic angiogenesis screen for studying antiangiogenic therapeutic drugs.Lab on a Chip，2015，15（1）：301-310.
［85］Molino D，Quignard S，Gruget C，et al.On-chip quantitative measurement of mechanical stresses during cell migration with emulsion droplets.Sci Rep，2016，6：29113.
［86］Meng X，Xing Y，Li J，et al.Rebuilding the vascular network：In vivo and in vitro approaches.Front Cell Dev Biol，2021，9：639299.
［87］Zhang Y S，Arneri A，Bersini S，et al.Bioprinting 3D microfibrous scaffolds for engineering endothelialized myocardium and heart-on-a-chip.Biomaterials，2016，110：45-59.
［88］Sekine H，Shimizu T，Sakaguchi K，et al.In vitro fabrication of functional three-dimensional tissues with perfusable blood vessels.Nat Commun，2013，4：1399.
［89］Zhang B，Montgomery M，Chamberlain M D，et al.Biodegradable scaffold with built-in vasculature for organ-on-a-chip engineering and direct surgical anastomosis.Nat Mater，2016，15（6）：669-678.
［90］Skylar-Scott M A，Uzel S G M，Nam L L，et al.Biomanufacturing of organ-specific tissues with high cellular density and embedded vascular channels.Sci Adv，2019，5（9）：eaaw2459.
［91］Liu Y，Zhang Y，Mei T，et al.Hescs-derived early vascular cell spheroids for cardiac tissue vascular engineering and myocardial infarction treatment.Adv Sci（Weinh），2022，9（9）：e2104299.
［92］Tsukamoto Y，Akagi T，Akashi M.Vascularized cardiac tissue construction with orientation by layer-by-layer method and 3D printer.Sci Rep，2020，10（1）：5484.
［93］Fang Y，Sun W，Zhang T，et al.Recent advances on bioengineering approaches for fabrication of functional engineered cardiac pumps：A review.Biomaterials，2022，280：121298.
［94］Ma X，Li H，Zhu S，et al.Angiorganoid：Vitalizing the organoid with blood vessels.Vasc Biol，2022，4（1）：R44-57.
【注释】
[1]注：本章图中所用图标来自Biorender（http：//www.biorender.com/）。