注释
注释
序章
1 Galen，On the Natural Faculties，trans.Arthur John Brock（London：William Heinemann，1928），p.279.
2 Walter Isaacson，Leonardo da Vinci（New York：Simon & Schuster，2017），p.9.
3 Stephen Greenblatt，The Swerve：How the World Became Modern（New York：W.W.Norton，2011），p.ⅹ.
4 Ibid.，p.186.
5 Ibid.，p.ⅹ.
6 Galen，On the Natural Faculties，trans.Arthur John Brock（London：William Heinemann，1928），p.ⅹ.
7 Owsei Temkin，Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins University Press，1991），p.10.
8 Siddhartha Mukherjee，The Emperor of All Maladies（New York：Scribner，2010），p.ⅹ.
9 Owsei Temkin，Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins University Press，1991），p.ⅹ.
10 David Wootton，Bad Medicine：Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2006），p.42.
11 Ibid.，p.31.
12 Owsei Temkin，Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins University Press，1991），p.11.
13 Ibid.，p.5.
14 Steven Johnson，How We Got to Now：Six Innovations That Made the Modern World（New York：Riverhead Books，2014），pp.5-6.
15 Owsei Temkin，Galenism：Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy（Ithaca，N.Y.：Cornell University Press，1973），p.14.
16 Owsei Temkin，Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins University Press，1991），p.3.
17 Ibid.，p.4.
18 Galen，On the Natural Faculties，trans.Arthur John Brock（London：William Heinemann，1928），p.ⅹⅸ.
第一章 困境
1 R.I.Harris，“Arthrodesis for Tuberculosis of the Hip，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，vol.17，No.2，1935
2 E.A.Codman，The Shoulder（Boston：Thomas Todd Co.，1934）.
3 Charles S.Neer，Shoulder Reconstruction（New York：W.B.Saunders，1990），p.ⅶ.
4 Ibid.，p.146.
5 E.A.Codman，The Shoulder（Boston：Thomas Todd Co.，1934），p.331.
6 Arthur Steindler，The Traumatic Deformities and Disabilities of the Upper Extremity（Springfield，Ill.：Charles C.Thomas，1946），p.126.
7 A.F.DePalma，Surgery of the Shoulder（Philadelphia：J.B.Lippincott，1950），p.272.
8 Ibid.，p.423.
9 C.S.Neer，T.H.Brown，H.L.McLaughlin，“Fracture of the neck of the humerus with dislocation of the head fragment，”American Journal of Surgery，March 1953，pp.252-58.
第二章 纸张、先知和印刷机
1 Sven Beckert，Empire of Cotton.A Global History（New York：Knopf，2014）.
2 Matt Ridley，The Evolution of Everything：How New Ideas Emerge（New York：Harper Collins，2015），p.120.
3 Ibid.，p.125.
4 Kumar Srivastava，“The‘Adjacent Possible’of Big Data：What Evolution Teaches about Insights Generation，”Wired，Dec.2014.
5 Steven Johnson，Where Good Ideas Come From：The Natural History of Innovation（New York：Riverhead Books，2010），p.31.
6 Elizabeth Eisenstein，The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe（Cambridge，UK：Cambridge University Press，1983），p.4.
7 Mark Kurlansky，Paper：Paging Through History（New York：W.W.Norton，2016），p.13.
8 Craig Kallendorf，“Ancient Book，”in The Book：A Global History，M.F.Suarez and H.R.Woudhuysen，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2013），p.49.
9 Mark Kurlansky，Paper：Paging Through History（New York：W.W.Norton，2016），p.14.
10 John Man，Gutenberg：How One Man Remade the World with Words（New York：MJF Books，2002），p.24.
11 Ibid.，p.48.
12 Ibid.，p.124.
13 Ibid.，p.124.
14 Ibid.，p.164.
15 Ibid.，p.8.
16 Mark Kurlansky，Paper：Paging Through History（New York：W.W.Norton，2016），p.26.
17 Ibid.，p.160.
18 Steven Weinberg，To Explain the World：The Discovery of Modern Science（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.101.
19 Ibid.，p.104.
20 P.K.Hitti，History of the Arabs（London：Macmillan，1937），p.315.
21 Hillel Ofek，“Why the Arabic World Turned Away from Science，”The New Atlantis，Winter 2011，pp.3-23.
22 Ibid.，p.50.
23 Hillel Ofek，“Why the Arabic World Turned Away from Science，”The New Atlantis，Winter 2011，p.7.
24 David Wootton，Bad Medicine：Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2006），p.50.
25 Michael Flannery，Avicenna entry，Encyclopedia Britannica online，quoted August 11，2016.
26 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1988），p.57.
27 Steven Weinberg，To Explain the World：The Discovery of Modern Science（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.112.
28 Charles Burnett and Danielle Jacquart，eds.，Constantine the African and Ali ibn al-Abbas al-Magusi；The Pantegni and Related Texts（Leiden，Netherlands：E.J.Brill，1994），Preface ⅶ-ⅷ.
29 Nicholas Ostler，Ad Infinitum：A Biography of Latin（New York：HarperPress，2009），p.211.
30 David Osborn，“Constantine the African and Gerard of Cremona，”in GreekMedicine.Net，quoted August 20，2016，http://www.greekmedicine.net/whos_who/Constantine_the_African_Gerard_of_Cremona.html.
31 Christopher de Hamel，“The European Medieval Book，”in The Book：A Global History，M.F.Suarez and H.R.Woudhuysen，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2013），p.59.
32 John Man，Gutenberg：How One Man Remade the World with Words（New York：MJF Books，2002），p.88.
第三章 维萨里与《人体构造论》
1 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.58.
2 Ibid.，p.106.
3 Ibid.，p.75.
4 Ibid.，p.78.
5 Paul Strathern，The Medici：Power，Money，and Ambition in the Italian Renaissance（New York：Pegasus Books，2016），p.46.
6 Steven Johnson，How We Got to Now：Six Innovations That Made the Modern World（New York：Riverhead Books，2014），p.17.
7 Ibid.，p.19.
8 Ibid.，p.32.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.，p.8.
11 Lewis Mumford，Technics and Civilization（Chicago：University of Chicago Press，2010），p.129.
12 Steven Johnson，How We Got to Now：Six Innovations That Made the Modern World（New York：Riverhead Books，2014），p.35.
13 C.D.O'Malley，Andreas Vesalius ofBrussels 1514-1564（Berkeley：University of California Press，1964），p.6.
14 Ibid.，p.10.
15 Ibid.，p.14.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.，p.19.
18 Ibid.，p.20.
19 Ibid.，p.44.
20 Ibid.，p.49.
21 Ibid.，p.59.
22 Ibid.，p.64.
23 Ibid.，p.77.
24 Ibid.，p.106.
25 Ibid.，p.113.
26 Ibid.，p.114.
27 Ibid.，p.321.
28 Ibid.，p.317.
29 Ibid.，p.318.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.，p.323.
32 S.W.Lambert，W.Wiegand，and W.M.Ivins，Three Vesalian Essays to Accompany the Icones Anatomicae of 1934（New York：Macmillan，1952），p.27.
33 Ibid.，pp.3-24.
34 C.D.O'Malley，Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564（Berkeley：University of California Press，1964），p.323.
第四章 科学的崛起
1 Thomas Sprat，The History of the Royal Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge（London：1667），p.53.
2 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.24.
3 Ibid.，p.12.
4 Ibid.，p.199.
5 Galilei，Galileo，Sidereus Nuncius，or the Sidereal Messenger，Albert van Heiden（trans）（Chicago：University of Chicago Press，2016），p.6.
6 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.215.
7 Ibid.，p.39.
8 Perez Zagorin，Francis Bacon（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，1998），p.122.
9 Ibid.，p.3.
10 John Sutton，Encyclopedia of the Life Sciences（New York：Macmillan，2001），p.471.
11 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.83.
12 Ibid.，p.75.
13 Perez Zagorin，Francis Bacon（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，1998），p.79.
14 Ibid.，p.3.
15 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.84.
16 Perez Zagorin，Francis Bacon（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，1998），p.100.
17 Ibid.，p.123.
18 Francis Bacon，New Atlantis（1627），5：415.
19 Perez Zagorin，Francis Bacon（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，1998），p.123.
20 Ibid.，p.224.
21 Bill Bryson，ed.，Seeing Further：The Story of Science and the Royal Society（London，HarperPress，2010），p.9.
22 David Wootton，The Invention of Science：A New History of the Scientific Revolution（New York：HarperCollins，2015），p.35.
23 Bill Bryson，ed.，Seeing Further：The Story of Science and the Royal Society（London，Harper Press，2010），p.3.
24 James Gleick，Isaac Newton（New York：Harper Perennial，2004），p.3.
25 Edward Dolnick，The Clockwork Universe：Isaac Newton，the Royal Society，and the Birth of the Modern World（New York：HarperCollins，2011），p.5.
26 Bill Bryson，ed.，Seeing Further：The Story of Science and the Royal Society（London，HarperPress，2010），p.33.
27 Gerek Gjertsen，The Newton Handbook（London：Routledge Kegan & Paul，1987），p.24.
28 Matthew Green，http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/articles/London-cafes-the-surprising-history-of-Londons-lost-coffeehouses/.Accessed October 9，2019.
29 Ibid.
30 John Maynard Keynes，quoted in James Gleick，Isaac Newton（New York：Harper Perennial，2004），p.188.
31 Perez Zagorin，Francis Bacon（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，1998），p.95.
第五章 哈维与亨特
1 Stephen Paget，John Hunter，Man of Science and Surgeon（London：Fischer Unwin，1924），p.27.
2 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.177.
3 Thomas Wright，Circulation：William Harvey's Revolutionary Idea（London：Vintage，2013），pp.41-42.
4 Ibid.，p.91.
5 Ibid.，p.119.
6 Ibid.，p.110.
7 Ibid.，p.121.
8 Ibid.，p.ⅹⅲ.
9 Finch，Ernest，“The Influence of the Hunters on Medical Education，”Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England，1957，vol.20，pp.205-48.
10 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.14.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.，p.28.
13 Ibid.，p.37.
14 Ibid.，p.39.
15 Ibid.，p.41.
16 Ibid.，p.43.
17 William Hunter，Two Introductory Lectures（London：printed on the order of the trustees for J.Johnson，1784），p.73.
18 John Hunter，The Works of John Hunter，ed.James Palmer，vol.4，（London：Longman，Rees，Orme，Brown，Breem，1835），pp.81-116.
19 John Hunter，Essays and Observations on Natural History，Anatomy，Physiology，Psychology and Geology，ed.Richard Owen，（London：John Van Voorst，1861），vol.1，p.189.
20 Megan Oaten，Richard Stevenson，et al.，“Disgust as a Disease-Avoidance Mechanism，”Psychological Bulletin，vol.135，No.2，pp.303-21.
21 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.62.
22 Ibid.，p.149.
23 Benjamin Franklin，The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin（New York：P.F.Collier，1909），p.157.
24 http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/shippen_wm.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
25 Betsy Copping Corner，ed.William Shippen Jr.，Pioneer in American Medical Education，With Notes，and the Original Text of His Edinburgh Dissertation，1761，（Philadelphia，PA：American Philosophical Society，1951），p.7.
26 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.84.
27 Jessé Foot，The Life of John Hunter（London：T.Becket，1794），pp.81-2.
28 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.7.
29 Ibid.，p.89.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.，p.112.
32 Royal Society Journal Book Copy，vol.26，1767-1770，February 5，1767（no page numbers）.
33 John Hunter，The Works of John Hunter，ed.James Palmer，vol.4，（London：Longman，Rees，Orme，Brown，Breem，1835），p.417.
34 Ibid.，pp.417-19.
35 Wendy Moore，The Knife Man：Blood，Body Snatching，and the Birth of Modern Surgery（New York：Broadway Books，2005），p.6.
36 Ibid.，p.176.
37 Ibid.，p.177.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.，p.269.
40 Ibid.，p.170.
41 Ibid.，p.171.
42 Ibid.，p.223.
43 Thomas Wright，Circulation：William Harvey's Revolutionary Idea（London：Vintage，2013），p.225.
44 Ibid.
第六章 病理学
1 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.156.
2 Ibid.，p.157.
3 Ibid.，p.159.
4 Ibid.，p.147.
5 Rudolf Virchow，“Morgagni and the Anatomic Concept，”Bulletin of the History of Medicine，Oct.1939；vol.7，pp.975-90.
6 Antoni Lewenhoeck，“De Natis'e E Semine Genitali Animalculis，”Philosophical Transactions（1665-1678）.1753-01-01.12：1040-1046.
7 Catherine Wilson，The Invisible World：Early Modern Philosophy and the Invention of the Microscope（Princeton，New Jersey：Princeton University Press，1995），p.36.
8 Ibid.，p.37.
9 Bernard de Fontenelle，p.9.https://books.google.com/books？id=VOqbtFnjR0C&print sec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.Accessed October 9，2019.
10 https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/vincent-van-gogh-sunflowers.Accessed October 9，2019.
11 http://ursula.chem.yale.edu/～chem220/chem220js/STUDYAIDS/history/chemists/perkin.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
12 “The Top Pharmaceuticals that Changed the World，”Chemical and Engineering News，vol.83，Issue 25，June 2005，https://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/83/8325/8325emergence.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
13 S.I.Hajdu，“Microscopic contributions of pioneer pathologists，”Annals of Clinical &Laboratory Science，vol.41（2），2011，p.201.
14 R.Ali Faisal，et al.，“Hematoxylin in History—The Heritage of Histology，”JAMA Dermatology，2017，153（3），p.328.
15 Gary W.Gill，Cytopreparation：Principles & Practice；Essentials in Cytopathology（New York：Springer，2012），p.207.
16 Johannes Steudel，Johannes Müller，German Physiologist，in Encyclopedia Britannica online，https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Muller.Accessed October 9，2019.
17 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.310.
18 Ibid.，p.320.
19 Ibid.，p.307.
20 Ibid.，p.306.
21 Ibid.，p.325.
第七章 病菌
1 http://en.muvs.org/topic/the-gate-for-the-secretly-pregnant.pdf.Accessed October 9，2019.
2 Sherwin Nuland，The Doctor's Plague：Germs，Childbed Fever，and the Strange Story of Ignác Semmelweis（New York：Atlas Books，2003），p.96.
3 Ibid.，p.96.
4 Ibid.，p.94.
5 Ibid.，p.90.
6 Ibid.，pp.99-100.
7 Ibid.，p.100.
8 Edward Huth and T.J.Murray，Medicine in Quotations：Views of Health and Disease Through the Ages（Philadelphia：American College of Physicians，2006），p.176.
9 Lane，Nick“The Unseen World：Reflections on Leeuwenhoek（1677）‘Concerning Little Animals’”Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society，370：20140344，2015，pp.1-10.
10 Sherwin Nuland，The Doctor's Plague：Germs，Childbed Fever，and the Strange Story of lgnác Semmelweis（New York：Atlas Books，2003），p.156.
11 Ibid.，pp.159-61.
12 Thomas Hodgkin，“On Some Morbid Appearances of the Absorbent Glands and Spleen”Medico-Chirurgical Transactions，1832.17：68-114.
13 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.352.
14 David Wootton，Bad Medicine：Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2006），p.234.
15 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.354.
16 Ibid.，p.355.
17 Ibid.，p.356.
18 Richard A.Fisher，Joseph Lister 1827-1912（New York：Stein and Day，1977），p.52.
19 Melvin Santer，Confronting Contagion：Our Evolving Understanding of Disease（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2014），p.211.
20 Jacob Henle，On Miasmata and Contagia，trans.George Rosen（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins Press，1938），p.14.
21 Ibid.，p.19.
22 Richard A.Fisher，Joseph Lister 1827-1912（New York：Stein and Day，1977），p.132.
23 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.362.
24 Ibid.，p.363.
25 Richard A.Fisher，Joseph Lister 1827-1912（New York：Stein and Day，1977），p.134.
26 Ibid.
27 Edwin S.Gaillard，The American Medical Weekly，vols.8-9，1878，p.243.
28 Richard A.Fisher，Joseph Lister 1827-1912（New York：Stein and Day，1977），p.131-2.
29 Francis Darwin，The Eugenics Review，vol.6：1，1914，p.1.
30 Thomas Goetz，The Remedy：Robert Koch，Arthur Conan Doyle，and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis（New York：Gotham Books，2014），p.11.
31 Ibid.，p.13.
32 Ibid.，p.6.
33 http://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/anthrax/overview-of-anthrax.Accessed July 23，2017.
34 Thomas Goetz，The Remedy：Robert Koch，Arthur Conan Doyle，and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis（New York：Gotham Books，2014），p.23.
35 Jacob Henle，On Miasmata and Contagia，trans.George Rosen（Baltimore：Johns Hopkins Press，1938），p.42.
36 Thomas Goetz，The Remedy：Robert Koch，Arthur Conan Doyle，and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis（New York：Gotham Books，2014），p.39.
37 Ibid.，p.40.
38 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Koch.Accessed July 29，2017.
39 Thomas Goetz，The Remedy：Robert Koch，Arthur Conan Doyle，and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis（New York：Gotham Books，2014），p.87.
40 E.Cambau and M.Drancourt，“Steps Towards the Discovery of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis by Robert Koch，1882”Clinical Microbiology and Infection，vol.20，Issue 3，March 2014，pp.196-201.
41 Thomas Goetz，The Remedy：Robert Koch，Arthur Conan Doyle，and the Quest to Cure Tuberculosis（New York：Gotham Books，2014），p.88.
42 Ibid.，p.87.
43 David Wootton，Bad Medicine：Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2006），p.227.
44 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.379.
第八章 抗生素
1 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibioticsand the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.41.
2 Ibid.，p.39.
3 H.Maruta，“From chemotherapy to signal therapy（1909-2009）：A century pioneered by Paul Ehrlich，”Drug Discoveries Therapeutics，2009；3（2）：37-40.
4 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.57.
5 Ibid.，p.62.
6 Ibid.，p.63.
7 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.53.
8 Ibid.，p.63.
9 Ibid.，p.68.
10 Ibid.，p.107.
11 Ibid.，p.113.
12 Eric Lax，The Mold in Dr.Florey's Coat：The Story of the Penicillin Miracle（New York：Henry Holt and Company，2015），chapter 8.
13 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.131.
14 Ibid.，p.135.
15 Robert Bud，Penicillin：Triumph and Tragedy（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2007），p.36.
16 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.135.
17 Paul Starr，The Social Transformation of American Medicine：The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry（New York：Basic Books，1982），p.341.
18 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.192.
19 Ibid.
20 Selman Waksman and H.Boyd Woodruff，“Streptothricin，a New Selective Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Agent，Particularly Active Against Gram-Negative Bacteria”Proceedings of the Society forExperimental Biology and Medicine，Feb.1，1942，49（2），pp.207-10.
21 Albert Schatz，Elizabeth Bugle，and Selman Waksman“Streptomycin，A Substance Exhibiting Antibiotic Activity Against Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria，”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine，Jan.1，1944，55（1）pp.66-9.
22 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.211.
23 Ibid.，p.268.
24 Ibid.，p.303.
25 Paul Starr，The Social Transformation of American Medicine：The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry（New York：Basic Books，1982），p.336.
26 William Rosen，Miracle Cure：The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine（New York：Viking，2017），p.256.
第九章 麻醉
1 William Mayo，Collected Papers of the Mayo Clinic and the Mayo Foundation，vol.13，（New York，Saunders，1922），p.1274.
2 J.Ashhurst Jr.，“Surgery Before the Days of Anesthesia，”in J.C.Warren，J.C.White，W.I.Richardson，H.H.Beach，F.C.Shattuck，W.S.Bigelow，eds.The Semi-Centennial of Anesthesia，October 16，1846-October 16，1896，（Boston：Massachusetts General Hospital，1897），27-37.
3 Ann Ellis Hanson，“‘Your mother nursed you with bile’：anger in babies and small children，”in Susanna Braund，and Glenn W.Most，eds.，Ancient Anger，Perspectives from Homer to Galen（Cambridge，UK：University of Cambridge Press，2004），p.185.
4 https://www.greekmyths-greekmythology.com/morpheus-the-god-of-dreams/.Accessed October 4，2018.
5 M.L.Meldrum，“A capsule history of pain management，”JAMA，290（18），Nov.12，2003.
6 Ibid.，p.2.
7 Sherwin Nuland，The Origins of Anesthesia（Birmingham：Classics of Modern Medicine，1983），p.25.
8 https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/joseph priestleyoxygen.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 Henry Guerlac，“Joseph Black and Fixed Air，a Bicentenary Retrospective，with some New or Little Known Material，”Isis，vol.48，No.2，1957，p.125.
12 https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/josephpriest leyoxygen.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
13 Humphry Davy，Researches，Chemical and Philosophical：Chiefly Concerning Nitrous Oxide（Bristol，UK：Biggs and Cottle，1800），p.556.
14 Sherwin Nuland，The Origins of Anesthesia（Birmingham：Classics of Modern Medicine，1983），p.54.
15 Ibid.，p.55.
16 Ibid.，p.63.
17 https://archive.org/stream/101495446.nlm.nih.gov/101495446#page/nl/mode/2up.Accessed October 9，2019.
18 Sherwin Nuland，The Origins of Anesthesia（Birmingham：Classics of Modern Medicine，1983），p.65.
19 Ibid.，p.67.
20 Ibid.，p.68.
21 John Collins Warren，“Inhalation of ethereal vapor for the prevention of pain in surgical operations，”Boston Medical and Surgical Journal，December 9，1846.
22 Sherwin Nuland，The Origins of Anesthesia（Birmingham：Classics of Modern Medicine，1983），p.99.
23 Gordon，H.Laing，quoted in Sherwin Nuland，The Origins of Anesthesia（Birmingham：Classics of Modern Medicine，1983），p.108.
24 http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/victoria.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
第十章 择期手术
1 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.66.
2 James Thomas Flexner and Simon Flexner，“William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of American Medicine，”New England Journal of Medicine，1942；227：152-54，July 23，1942.
3 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.42.
4 Joshua Berrett，“Doctors Afield：Theodor Billroth，”New England Journal of Medicine，264；Jan.5，1961，p.38.
5 A.Cesmebasi，et al.，“A Historical Perspective：Bernhard von Langenbeck German Surgeon（1810-1887），”Clinical Anatomy27：972-75，2014.
6 Ibid.
7 Siddhartha Mukherjee，The Emperor of All Maladies（New York：Scribner，2010），p.58.
8 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.391.
9 R.Kazi andR.Peter，“Christian Albert Theodor Billroth：Master of Surgery，”Journal of Postgraduate Medicine，2004；50：82-3.
10 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.391.
11 M.Goerig，et al.，“Carl Koller，Cocaine，and Local Anesthesia.Some less known and forgotten facts，”Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine，37（3，May-June）：318，2012.
12 Ibid.
13 G.Gaertner，Die Entdeckung der Lokalanasthesia（Vienna：Der neue Tag，1919），6.
14 Ibid.
15 H.D.Noyes，“The Ophthalmological Congress in Heidelberg，”Medical Record.1884；26：417-18.
16 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.55.
17 Howard Markel，An Anatomy of Addiction：Sigmund Freud，William Halsted，and the Miracle Drug，Cocaine（New York：Vintage，2012），p.108.
18 Ibid.，p.111.
19 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.80.
20 Ibid.，p.87.
21 Ibid.，p.98.
22 Ibid.，p.349.
23 Sherwin Nuland，Doctors：The Biography of Medicine（New York：Vintage Books，1995），p.414.
24 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.115.
25 Ibid.，p.118.
26 Siddhartha Mukherjee，The Emperor of All Maladies（New York：Scribner，2010），p.47.
27 Gerald Imber，Genius on the Edge：The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.William Stewart Halsted（New York：Kaplan，2011），p.228.
28 Ibid.，p.233.
29 Ibid.，p.349.
30 Ibid.，p.296.(https://www.daowen.com)
31 Ibid.，p.348.
32 Ibid.，p.146.
33 Ibid.，p.350.
第十一章 钴铬钼合金
1 A.Boire，V.A.Riedel，N.M.Parrish S.Riedel，“Tuberculosis：From an Untreatable Disease in Antiquity to an Untreatable Disease in Modern Times？”Journal of Ancient Diseases and Preventable Remedies，2013，vol.1，pp.1-11.
2 N.J.Eynon-Lewis，D.Ferry，and M.F.Pearse，“Themistocles Gluck，Unrecognized Genius，”British Medical Journal，1992，vol.305，pp.1534-36.
3 R.A.Brand，M.A.Mont，and M.M.Manring，“Biographical Sketch：Themistocles Gluck（1853-1942），”Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research，2011，469，pp.1525-27.
4 Ibid.，p.1527.
5 M.J.Bankes and R.J.Emery，“Pioneers of Shoulder Replacement：Themistocles Gluck and Jules Emile Péan，”Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery，1995，vol.4，pp.259-62.
6 Ibid.，p.260.
7 M.N.Smith-Petersen，Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1953，vol.35，pp.1042-44.
8 M.N.Smith-Petersen，“Evolution of mould arthroplasty of the hip joint，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1948，vol.30B，pp.59-75.
9 C.S.Venable，W.G.Stuck，and A.Beach，“The effects of bone of the presence of metals；based upon electrolysis，an experimental study，”Annals of Surgery，1937，vol.105，pp.917-38.
10 M.N.Smith-Petersen，“Arthroplasty of the hip，a new method，”Journal of Bone andJoint Surgery，1939，vol.37，p.269-88.
11 Ibid.，p.278.
12 E.D.McBride，“A femoral head prosthesis for the hip joint.Four years'experience and the results，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1952，vol.34，pp.989-96.
13 Ibid.，p.989.
14 M.J.Bankes and R.J.Emery，“Pioneers of Shoulder Replacement：Themistocles Gluck and Jules Emile Péan，”Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery，1995，vol.4，p.262.
第十二章 疏忽与享有权
1 Sue Blevins，Medicare's Midlife Crisis（Washington，DC：Cato Institute，2001），p.25.
2 Ibid.
3 Ronald L.Numbers，ed.，Compulsory Health Insurance：The Continuing American Debate（Westport，Conn.：Greenwood Press，1982），p.6.
4 R.Cunningham and R.M.Cunningham，The Blues：A History of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield System（Dekalb：Northern Illinois University，1997），p.ⅸ.
5 Ibid.，p.5.
6 Ibid.，p.4.
7 James E.Stuart，The Blue Cross Story：An Informal Biography of the Voluntary Nonprofit Prepayment Plan for Hospital Care（self-published），1952，p.18.
8 R.Cunningham and R.M.Cunningham，The Blues：A History of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield System（Dekalb：Northern Illinois University，1997），p.35.
9 Ibid.，p.59.
10 Ibid.，p.92.
11 Ibid.，p.118.
12 Oscar Ewing，press statement（Federal Security Agency，Washington，DC，June 25，1951）.
13 Julian E.Zelizer，“How Medicare Was Made，”New Yorker，Feb.15，2015.
14 Paul Starr，The Social Transformation of American Medicine：The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry（New York：Basic Books，1982）.
15 Howard，S.Berliner，“The Origins of Health Insurance for the Aged，”International Journal of Health Services 3，no.3（1973）：465.
16 Sue Blevins，Medicare's Midlife Crisis（Washington，DC：Cato Institute，2001），p.42.
17 Julian Zelizer，“The Contentious Origins of Medicare and Medicaid，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.13.
18 James Morone and Elisabeth Fauquert，“Medicare in American Political History：The Rise and Fall of Social Insurance，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.299.
19 Ibid.，p.299.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.，p.300.
22 Ira Katznelson，Fear Itself，The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time（New York：Liveright，2013）
23 Sue Blevins，Medicare's Midlife Crisis（Washington，DC：Cato Institute，2001），p.46.
24 Ibid.
25 D.B.Smith，“Civil Rights and Medicare，Historical Convergence and Continuing Legacy，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.35.
26 Ibid.
27 Nathaniel Wesley，Black Hospitals in America：History，Contributions，and Demise（Tallahassee，Fla.，NRW Associates Publications，2010）.
28 Cited in Rick Mayes，“The Origins，Development，and Passage of Medicare's Revolutionary Prospective Payment System，”Journal of the History of Medicine 62，Jan.2007，p.25.
29 Uwe Reinhardt，“Medicare Innovations in the War Over the Key to the US Treasury，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.172.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.，p.173.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.，p.174.
34 Ibid.，p.175.
35 American Medical Association，“History of the RBRVS，”http://www.ama-assn.org//ama/pub/physician-resources/solutions-managing-your-practice/coding-billinginsurance/medicare/the-resource-based-relative-value-scale/history-of-rbrvs.page.Accessed October 9，2019.
36 Uwe Reinhardt，“Medicare Innovations in the War Over the Key to the US Treasury，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in theAge of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.178.
37 Uwe Reinhardt，“Medicare Innovations in the War Over the Key to the US Treasury，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.179.
38 Kaiser Family Foundation，“10 Essential Facts About Medicare's Financial Outlook，”Feb.2，2017，http://kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/10-essential-facts-about-medicares-financial-outlook/.Accessed October 9，2019.
39 Uwe Reinhardt，“Medicare Innovations in the War Over the Key to the US Treasury，”in Medicare and Medicaid at 50，America's Entitlement Programs in the Age of Affordable Care，Alan B.Cohen，David C.Colby，Keith A.Wailoo，and Julian Zelizer，eds.（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.182.
第十三章 设备许可
1 Philip J.Hilts，ProtectingAmerica's Health：The FDA，Business，and One Hundred Years of Regulation（Chapel Hill：University of North Carolina Press，2004），p.ⅸ.
2 Ibid.，p.3.
3 Ibid.，p.ⅹ.
4 Ibid.，p.ⅹⅰ.
5 David Greenberg，“How Teddy Roosevelt Invented Spin，”Atlantic，Jan.24，2016，https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/01/how-teddy-roosevelt-invented-spin/426699/.Accessed October 9，2019.
6 Ibid.
7 Philip J.Hilts，Protecting America's Health：The FDA，Business，and One Hundred Years of Regulation（Chapel Hill：University of North Carolina Press，2004），p.24.
8 Ibid.，p.55.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.，p.93.
11 Ibid.
12 Carol Rados，“Medical Device and Radiological Health Regulations Come of Age，”FDA Consumer Magazine，Jan.-Feb.，2006，https://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/whatwedo/history/productregulation/medicaldeviceandradiologicalhealthregulationscomeofage/default.htm.Accessed October 9，2019.
13 Meryl Gordon，“A Cash Settlement，but No Apology”，New York Times，Feb.20，1999，http://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/20/opinion/a-cash-settlement-but-no-apology.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
14 I.D.Learmonth，C.Young，C.Rorabeck，“The Operation of the Century，”The Lancet，2007，1508-19.
15 G.K.McKee，J.Watson-Farrar，“Replacement of arthritic hips by the McKee-Farrar prosthesis，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1966，48 B：245，59.
16 D.Cohen，“Out of joint：The Story of the ASR，”British Medical Journal，May 14，2011，342：d2905.
17 https://www.depuysynthes.com/asrrecall/depuy-asr-recall-usen.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
18 C.Delaunay，“Registries in Orthopaedics，”Orthopaedics & Traumatology：Surgery &Research，101（2015），S69-S75.
19 P.Slatis and B.Veraart，“Goran Carl Harald Bauer：1923-1994，”Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica，65：5，491-8，1994.
20 Barry Meier，“A Call for a Warning System on ArtificialJoints，”New York Times，July 29，2008.
21 Australian Orthopedic Association.National Joint Replacement Registry，annual report 2007.AOA，2008.
22 D.Cohen，“Out of joint：The Story of the ASR，”British Medical Journal，May 14，2011，342：d2905.
23 Ibid.
24 Barry Meier，“A Call for a Warning System on Artificial Joints，”New York Times，July 29，2008.
25 Barry Meier，“House Bill Would Create Artificial Joints Registry，”New York Times，June 10，2009.
26 Barry Meier，“Concerns Over Metal on Metal Hip Implants，”New York Times，March 3，2010.
27 Ibid.
28 http://www.mcminncentre.co.uk/research-lectures-debate.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
29 Barry Meier，“Doctors Who Don't Speak Out，”New York Times，Feb.15，2013.
30 DePuy Orthopedics Inc.2010.“DePuy Orthopedics Voluntarily Recalls Hip System，”https://www.depuysynthes.com/about/news-press/qs/depuy-orthopaedics-voluntarily-recalls-asr-hip-system---depuy.Accessed October 9，2019.
31 http://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/AnnualReportArchive/j/NYSE_JNJ_2013.pdf.Accessed October 9，2019.
32 Barry Meier，“Frustrations from a Deal on Flawed Hip Implants，”New York Times，Nov.25，2013.
33 Matthias Wienroth，et al.，“Precaution，governance and the failure of medical implants：The ASR hip in the UK，”Life Sciences，Society and Policy，2014，10：19.
34 Andrew Barry，Political Machines：Governing a Technological Society（London：Athlone Press，2001）.
35 Matthias Wienroth，et al.，“Precaution，governance and the failure of medical implants：The ASR hip in the UK，”Life Sciences，Society and Policy，2014，10：19.
36 D.Cohen，“How Safe are Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants？”British Medical Journal，Feb.28，2012，344：e1410.
第十四章 医疗产业园区与医疗器械
1 William Henry Kellar，Enduring Legacy：The M.D.Anderson Foundation and The Texas Medical Center（College Station：Texas A&M University Press，2014），p.37.
2 Ibid.，p.41.
3 Ibid.，p.ⅹⅹⅰ.
4 Ibid.，p.182.
5 Ibid.，p.196.
6 Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology，http://www.sart.org/globalassets/__sart/infographics/number-of-clinics-treatments-births.png.Accessed October 9，2019.
7 G.S.Dawe，et al.，“Cell Migration from Baby to Mother，”Cell Adhesion & Migration，1（1）：2007，pp.19-27.
8 M.F.Maitz，“Applications of synthetic polymers in clinical medicine，”Biosurface and Biotribology，vol.1，2015，pp.161-76.
9 http://education.seattlepi.com/can-minerals-form-deep-within-carth-6008.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
10 https://www.britannica.com/technology/chromium-processing.Accessed October 9，2019.
11 http://www.mining.com/web/global-cobalt/.Accessed October 9，2019.
12 https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/11/placebo-effect-of-the-heart/545012/.Accessed October 9，2019.
13 https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2016/12/15/897773/0/en/Global-Cardiac-Pacemaker-Market-will-exceed-USD-12-00-billion-by-2021-Zion-Market-Research.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
第十五章 心脏外科
1 Stephen Paget，The Surgery of the Chest（Bristol，England：John Wright，1896），p.121.
2 http://www.timesleader.com/news/local/455923/dr-victor-greco-operated-heart-lung-machine-during-first-successful-open-heart-surgery.Accessed October 9，2019.
3 William Stoney，Evolution of Cardiopulmonary Bypass，vol.119，pp.2844-53，2009.
4 Vincent Gott，Lewis Lillehei，and Owen Wangensteen，“The Right Mix for Giant Achievement in Cardiac Surgery，”Annals of Thoracic Surgery，vol.79，2005，pp.S2210-13.
5 Ibid.，p.S2211.
6 Ibid.
7 https://medicine.wright.edu/about/news-and-events/vital-signs/article/a-real-life-macgyver-builds-a-medical-school.Accessed October 9，2019.
8 Earl Bakken，A Full Life，The Autobiography of Earl Bakken.Self published，p.32.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 http://www.pbs.org/transistor/albuml/.Accessed October 9，2019.
12 http://www.pbs.org/transistor/backgroundl/corgs/bellabs.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
13 Earl Bakken，A Full Life，The Autobiography of Earl Bakken.Self published，p.38.
14 http://www.medtronic.com/us-en/about/facts-stats.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
15 Henry Ellis，and John W.Kirklin，“Aortic Stenosis，”Surgical Clinics of North America，Aug.1955，p.1033.
16 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.250.
17 Ibid.，p.253.
18 A.F.Crocetti，“Cardiac Diagnostic and Surgical Facilities in the United States，”Public Health Rep.，1965，80：1035-53.
19 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.323.
20 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.323，quoting Hurst，“History of Cardiac Catheterization，”in S.B.King Ⅲ and J.S.Douglas，eds.Coronary Arteriography and Angioplasty（New York：McGraw-Hill，1985），pp.5-6.
21 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.326，quoting D.B.Effler to F.A.LeFevre，Nov.8，1960，Effler Papers，CCA.
22 A.Roguin，Cardiovascular Interventions.Circulation：2011；4：206-209.
23 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/12/no-old-maps-actually-say-here-be-dragons/282267/.Accessed October 9，2019.
24 R.P.Hudson，“Eisenhower's heart attack：How Ike beat heart disease and held onto the presidency，”（review）.Bulletin of the History of Medicine，vol.72（1），p.161-62.
25 https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1267465.Accessed October 9，2019.
第十六章 外科学的专科化
1 William Osler，“Why is it so？Is it so？”Journal of the Tennessee State Medical Association，1919，12：222.
2 Paul Starr，The Social Transformation of American Medicine：The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry（New York：Basic Books，1982），p.38.
3 Ibid.
4 US Bureau of the Census，Historical Statistics of the United States：Colonial Times to 1970（Washington，DC：US Department of Commerce，1975），p.78.
5 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.9.
6 https://www.thoughtco.com/how-skyscrapers-became-possible-1991649.Accessed October 9，2019.
7 https://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/f-scale.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
8 S.H.Severson，Rochester：Mecca for Millions（Rochester，MN：Marquette Bank & Trust，1979）.
9 W.W.Mayo，“Address，”in Memorial of St.Mary's Hospital，（Rochester，Minn.：St.Mary's Hospital，1894），pp.7-8.
10 W.J.Mayo，“John［s］Hopkins，May 1895，”handwritten notebook，MCA.
11 W.Bruce Fye，Caring for the Heart：Mayo Clinic and the Rise of Specialization（Oxford，UK：Oxford University Press，2015），p.16.
12 Ibid.，p.17.
13 Ibid.，p.19.
14 Ibid.，p.23.
15 Ibid.，p.29.
16 W.J.Mayo，“Commencement Address，”in Collected Papers of the St aff of St.Mary's Hospital，Mayo Clinic（Philadelphia：W.B.Saunders，1911），pp.557-66.
17 Rosemary Stevens，American Medicine and the Public Interest，rev.ed.，（Berkeley：University of California Press，1998），p.ⅸ.
18 David B.Levine，Anatomy of a Hospital：Hospital for Special Surgery，1863-2013（New York：Hospital for Special Surgery，2013），p.ⅹⅰ.
19 Ibid.，p.4.
20 M.M.Manning and J.H.Calhoun，“Royal Whitman，1857-1946”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery American Vol.，1946，vol.28，pp.890-92.
21 Rosemary Stevens，American Medicine and the Public Interest，rev.ed.，（Berkeley：University of California Press，1998），p.ⅸ.
22 David B.Levine，Anatomy of a Hospital：Hospital for Special Surgery，1863-2013（New York：Hospital for Special Surgery，2013），p.185.
23 Ibid.，p.215.
第十七章 植入革命
1 H.P.Platt，Sir John Charnley in Some Manchester Doctors W.J.Elwood，A.F.Tuxford，eds.（Manchester，UK：Manchester University Press，1985）.
2 C.S.Neer，T.H.Brown，and H.L.McLaughlin，“Fracture of the neck of the humerus with dislocation of the head fragment，”American Journal of Surgery，March 1953，pp.252-58.
3 C.S.Neer，“Articular replacement for the humeral head，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1955，37-A，pp.215-28.
4 C.S.Neer，“Replacement arthroplasty for glenohumeral osteoarthritis，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1974，56-A，pp.1-13.
5 William Waugh，John Charnley：The Man and the Hip（Berlin：Springer-Verlag，1990），p.114.
6 John Charnley，“Arthroplastyof the hip—a new operation，”1961，The Lancet I：1129-32.
7 William Waugh，John Charnley：The Man and the Hip（Berlin：Springer-Verlag，1990），p.122.
8 Ibid.
9 C.S.Neer，“Recent experience in total shoulder replacement，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，1982，64-A，pp.319-37.
第十八章 运动医学的诞生
1 https://www.forbes.com/forbes-400/list/3/#version：static.Accessed October 9，2019.
2 Reinhold Schmieding，“Helping Surgeons Treat their Patients Better：A history of Arthrex's contribution to Arthroscopic Surgery”Arthrex publication，2006，p.12.
3 Reinhold Schmieding，Personal communication，June 2，2017.
4 次日的《纽约论坛报》称：“……太阳欢快地笑着，不时躲在云层后面，仿佛在橄榄球比赛中被打肿了眼睛……大家只想要一点温暖，因为有成千上万的虎队球迷和漂亮姑娘在11月的寒冷空气中瑟瑟发抖。”
5 考恩，一位长老会牧师，后来在北卡罗来纳大学和堪萨斯大学担任橄榄球教练，在堪萨斯大学时他曾指导明星球员约翰·奥特兰。考恩在三年后辞去了橄榄球总教练的职务，但继续担任了两年的体育教授，之后被新的教授取代。这位教授是篮球的发明者詹姆斯·奈史密斯。
6 http://drs.library.yale.edu：8083/HLTransformer/HLTransServlet？stylename=yul.ead2002.xhtml.xsl&pid=mssa：ms.0125&clear-stylesheet-cache=yes.Accessed October 9，2019.
7 Ibid.
8 Zezima，Katie，May 29，2014 Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2014/05/29/teddy-roosevelt-helped-save-football-with-a-white-housemeeting-in-1905.Accessed October 9，2019.
9 几乎没人再这样做过了。我们通常使用来自同侧手臂的掌长肌，或来自同侧腿的较小的腘绳肌腱。
10 弗兰克·乔布医生在棒球名人堂里得到了特殊的认可。很难找到另一个对棒球产生如此深远影响的人物了。想想看，山迪·柯法斯在30岁就离开了赛场，而马里亚诺·里维拉还没有打过一场大联盟比赛就接受了乔布医生的肘部手术。
第十九章 计算影响
1 https://www.cbo.gov/about/products/budget-economic-data#2.Accessed October 9，2019.
2 D.P.Rice，B.S.Cooper，National Health Expenditures，1950-67，Bulletin，Jan.1969，https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v32n1/v32nlp3.pdf.Accessed October 9，2019.
3 https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl？cost1=5500&year1=196712&year2=201712.Accessed October 9，2019.
4 https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/db/nation/nis/nisdbdocumentation.jsp.Accessed October 9，2019.
5 Mark Coventry，“The History of Joint Replacement Arthroplasty，”Joint Replacement Arthroplasty（Philadelphia：Churchill Livingstone，2003），p.6.
6 S.Kurtz，et al.，“Projections of Primary and Revision Hip and Knee Arthroplasty in the United States from 2005 to 2030，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，2007，pp.780-85.
7 K.McDermott，et al.，“Overview of Operating Room Procedures During Inpatient Stays in U.S.Hospitals，”2014.Statistical Brief#233.December，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，Md.HCUP-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2014（1）.pdf.Accessed Jan.13，2018.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 S.Kurtz，et al.，“Projections of Primary and Revision Hip and Knee Arthroplasty in the United States from 2005 to 2030，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，2007，pp.780-85.
13 R.Westermann，“Reverse shoulder arthroplasty in the United States：A comparison of national volume，patient demographics，complications，and surgical indications，”Iowa Orthopedic Journal，（35），2015，pp.1-7.
14 E.Melamed，et al.，“Trends in the Utilization of Total Wrist Arthroplasty versus Wrist Fusion for Treatment of Advanced Arthritis，”Journal of Wrist Surgery，5（3），2016，pp.211-16.
15 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
16 S.Raikin，“Trends in Treatment of Advanced Ankle Arthroplasty by Total Ankle Replacement or Ankle Fusion，”Foot Ankle International，March，35（3）；2014，pp.216-24.
17 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
18 K.McDermott，et al.，“Overview of Operating Room Procedures During Inpatient Stays in U.S.Hospitals，”2014.Statistical Brief#233.December，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，Md.HCUP-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2014（1）.pdf.Accessed Jan.13，2018.
19 Ibid.
20 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
21 K.McDermott，et al.，“Overview of Operating Room Procedures During Inpatient Stays in U.S.Hospitals，”2014.Statistical Brief#233.December，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，Md.HCUP-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2014（1）.pdf.Accessed Jan.13，2018.
22 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
23 Ibid.
24 L.T.Buller，et al.，“Trends in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction in the United States，”Orthopedic Journal of Sports Medicine，3（1），2015，pp.1-8.
25 M.P.Leathers，“Trends and demographics in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in the United States，”Journal of Knee Surgery，Oct.28（5）；pp.390-94.
26 L.T.Buller，et al.，“Trends in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction in the United States，”Orthopedic Journal of Sports Medicine，3（1），2015，pp.1-8.
27 https://www.census.gov/popclock/.Accessed Feb.22，2018.
28 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
29 Ibid.
30 A.Chiang Colvin，et al.，“National Trends in Rotator Cuff Repair，”Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery，Feb.94（3），2012，pp.227-33.
31 N.Bonazza，et al.，“Trends in surgical management of shoulder instability，”Orthopedic Journal of Sports Medicine，June，5（6），2017，pp.1-7.
32 SmartTRAK，2018 Orthopedic Industry report.
33 Ibid.
34 R.Lee，et al.，“Fifteen-year outcome trends for valve surgery in North America，”Annals of Thoracic Surgery；91，2011，pp.677-84.
35 Ibid.
36 F.Algahtani，et al.，“Contemporary trends in the use and outcomes of surgical treatment of tricuspid regurgitation，”Journal of the American Heart Association，Dec.，6（12）：e007597，pp.1-10.
37 J.S.Gammie，et al.，“Trends in mitral valve surgery in the United States：Results from the Society of Thoracic Surgeons Adult Cardiac Database，”Annals of Thoracic Surgery；87，2009，pp.1431-9.
38 A.R.Opotowsky，et al.，“A shifting approach to management of the thoracic aorta in bicuspid aortic valve，”Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery，Aug.，146（2），2013，pp.339-46.
39 K.McDermott，et al.，“Overview of Operating Room Procedures During Inpatient Stays in U.S.Hospitals，”2014.Statistical Brief#233.December，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，Md.HCUP-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2014（1）.pdf.Accessed Jan.13，2018.
40 R.Lee，et al.，“Fifteen-year outcome trends for valve surgery in North America，”Annals of Thoracic Surgery；91，2011，pp.677-84.
41 K.McDermott，et al.，“Overview of Operating Room Procedures During Inpatient Stays in U.S.Hospitals，”2014.Statistical Brief#233.December，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，Md.HCUP-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2014（1）.pdf.Accessed Jan.13，2018.
42 Ibid.
43 S.Kurtz，et al.，“Implantation trends and patient profiles for pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators in the United States：1993-2006，”Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology，June 1，2010.
44 M.J.P.Raatikainen，et al.；“Statistics on the use of cardiac electronic devices and electrophysiological procedures in the European Society of Cardiology countries：2014 report from the European Heart Rhythm Association，”Europace 17，2015，ⅰ1-ⅰ75.
45 Anahad O'Connor，“Heart Stents Still Overused，Experts Say，”New York Times，Aug.15，2013，https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/heart-stents-continue-to-be-overused/.Accessed March 8，2018.
46 L.Szabo，“Stents open clogged arteries of 1M Americans annually，”Aug.6，2013.https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2013/08/06/bush-stent-heart-surgery/2623111/.Accessed March 8，2018.
47 Ilene McDonald，“Half of cardiac stent procedures overused，unnecessary，”Fierce Healthcare.https://www.fiercehealthcare.com/healthcare/half-cardiac-stent-proceduresoverused-unnecessary.Accessed March 8，2018.
48 R.Riley，et al.，“Trends in coronary revascularization in the United States from 2001 to 2009，recent declines in percutaneous coronary intervention volumes，”Circulation：Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes，March 1；4（2）；2011，pp.193-97.
49 A.Epstein，“Coronary revascularization trends in the United States，2001-2008，”JAMA，May 4，vol.305，（17），2011，pp.1769-776.
50 https://blog.mediligence.com/2009/05/05/drug-eluting-bare-metal-and-absorbablestents-segment-growth-2009-and-2017/.Accessed March 8，2018.
51 D.Buck，et al.，“The Impact of endovascular treatment on isolated iliac artery aneurysm treatment and mortality，”Journal of Vascular Surgery，Aug.，62（2），2015，pp.331-335.
52 https://www.healio.com/cardiac-vascular-intervention/aneurysm-repair/news/online/%7B51a14891-cdd4-439e-9dd5-368cc492e92a%7D/total-number-of-aaa-repairsin-us-declining-annually-since-2005.Accessed March 6，2018.
53 L.Mureebe，et al.，“National trends in the repair of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms，”Journal of Vascular Surgery，vol.48（5），Nov.2008，pp.1101-07.
54 R.Parwardhan，“Implanted ventricular shunts in the United States：the billion-dollara-year cost of hydrocephalus treatment，”Neurosurgery，56；2005，pp.139-45.
55 F.Khan，et al.，“Factors affecting ventriculoperitoneal shunt survival in adult patients，”Surgical Neurology International（6），2015，p.25.
56 J.Jalbert，“Clipping and coiling of unruptured intracranial aneurysms among Medicare beneficiaries，2000 to 2010，”Stroke（46）；2015，pp.2452-457.
57 https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/MedicareMedicaidStatSupp/Downloads/2011_Section2.pdf#Table2.1.Accessed March 11，2018.
58 A.A.Brinjikji，et al.，“Better outcomes with treatment by coiling relative to clipping of unruptured intracranial aneurysms in the United States，2001-2008.”American Journal of Neuroradiology，June 2011 vol.32（6），pp.1071-75.
59 https://www.medicalalley.org/media/22695/neuromod_pages.pdf.Accessed March 11，2018.
60 B.Youngerman，et al.，“A decade of emerging indications：deep-brain stimulation in the United States，”Journal of Neurosurgery，vol.125（2），2016，pp.461-71.
61 J.Prager，“Estimates of annual spinal cord stimulator implant rises in the United States，”Neuromodulation，vol.13（1），2010，pp.68-9.
62 https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/neurostimulation-devicesindustry.Accessed March 25，2018.
63 https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing.Accessed March 11，2018.
64 http://www.medel.com/cochlear-implants-facts/.Accessed March 9，2018.
65 https://unos.org/data/transplant-trends/#transplants_by_organ_type+year+2014.Accessed March 9，2018.
66 https://unos.org/data/transplant-trends/#transplants_by_donor_type+organ+All Organs.Accessed March 9，2018.
67 https://www.cdc.gov/art/pdf/2015-report/ART-2015-National-Summary-Report.pdf#page=65.Accessed March 18，2018.
68 Ibid.
69 https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidsable/2014/04/24/ivf-and-infertility-by-the-numbers/.Accessed March 18，2018.
70 https://www.medpagetoday.com/urology/erectiledysfunction/52233.Accessed October 9，2019.
71 S.MacDonald，“Waves of change：national trends in surgical management of male stress incontinence，”Urology，vol.108，October，2017，pp.175-79.
72 C.Steiner，et al.，“Surgeries in Hospital-Based Ambulatory Surgery and Hospital Inpatient Settings，2014，”Statistical Brief#223.May，2017.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality，Rockville，MD.HCUP-Ambulatory-Inpatient-Surgeries-2014.pdf，Accessed Jan.13，2018.
73 W.Stark，et al.，“Trends in Intraocular Lens Implantation in the United States，”Archives of Opthalmology，vol.104，Dec.，1986，pp.1769-70.
74 https://www.healio.com/ophthalmology/cataract-surgery/news/print/premier-surgeon/%7B6c74b954-0386-4638-957e-9f58eff91c3f%7D/refractive-surgery-and-iols--future-trends.Accessed March 25，2018.
75 https://www.aao.org/eyenet/article/simultaneous-bilateral-cataract-surgery-debate-con.Accessed March 25，2018.
76 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161018094928.htm.Accessed March 21，2018.
77 K.Baylon，et al.，“Past，present and future of surgical meshes：a review，”Membranes，vol.7（3），pp.1-23.
78 https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1534321-overview.Accessed March 21，2018.
79 https://www.goremedical.com/conditions/hernia.Accessed March 21，2018.
80 https://asmbs.org/resources/estimate-of-bariatric-surgery-numbers.Accessed March 18，2018.
81 Ibid.
82 http://obgyn.ucla.edu/mesh-related-complications.Accessed March 21，2018.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid.
85 Michele Jonsson Funk，et al.，“Trends in the surgical management of stress urinary incontinence，”Obstetrics & Gynecology，April；119（4），2012，pp.845-51.
86 Ibid.
87 https://d2wirczt3b6wjm.cloudfront.net/News/Statistics/2014/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2014.pdf.Accessed March 21，2018.
88 http://breastimplantinfo.org/fda-breast-implants/.Accessed March 21，2018.
89 L.Gaviria，et al.，“Current trends in dental implants，”Journal of the Korean Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons，40（2），2014，pp.50-60.
第二十章 脑植入物
1 J.W.Langston，“The MPTP Story，”Journal of Parkinson's Disease，（7），pp.S11-S19，2017.
2 R.Lewin，“Trail of Ironies to Parkinson's Disease，”Science，（224），pp.1083-5，1984.
3 J.M.Harlow，“Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head，”Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society.2（3），pp.327-47，1868.
4 Maria Konnikova，Scientific American，Feb.8，2013，https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/literally-psyched/the-man-who-couldnt-speakand-how-he-revolutionized-psychology/.Accessed July 15，2018.
5 Aubertin，1861，quoted by L.L.LaPointe，Paul Broca and the Origins of Language in the Brain（San Diego：Plural Publishing，2012），p.129.
6 A.P.Wickens，A History of the Brain：From Stone Age Surgery to Modern Neuroscience（London：Psychology Press，2014），p.171.
7 Bahar Gholipour，“A visual history of neurons，”Brain Decoder，April 13，2015.http://behdad.org/mirror/www.braindecoder.com/a-visual-history-of-neurons-1089282606.html.Accessed July 19，2018.
8 A.B.Keener，“The first neuron drawings，1870s，”The Scientist.https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/the-first-neuron-drawings-1870s-34751.Accessed July 19，2018.
9 Stanley Finger，“Santiago Ramón y Cajal：From Nerve Nets to Neuron Doctrine，”Minds Behind the Brain：A History of the Pioneers and their Discoveries（New York：Oxford University Press，2000），pp.197-216.
10 E.A.Newman，A.Araque，and J.M.Dubinsky，eds.，The Beautiful Brain：The Drawings of Santiago Ramón y Cajal（New York：Abrams，2018），p.12.
11 L.Swanson，in E.A.Newman，A.Araque，and J.M.Dubinsky，eds.，The Beautiful Brain：The Drawings of Santiago Ramón y Cajal（New York：Abrams，2018），p.12.
12 M.Fessenden，Smithsonian.com，https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/revel-thesewondrous-drawings-father-neuroscience-180961881/Jan.23，2017，Accessed July 27，2018.
13 Ibid.
14 E.V.Evarts，“Activity of neurons in visual cortex of the cat during sleep with low voltage fast EEG activity，”Journal of Neurophysiology 25：812-6，1962.
15 E.V.Evarts，“Temporal patterns of discharge of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey，”Journal of Neurophysiology，27：152-71，1964.
16 E.V.Evarts，“Pyramidal tract activity associated with a conditioned hand movement in the monkey，”Journal of Neurophysiology，29：1011-27，1966.
17 W.T.Thach，Edward Vaughan Evarts 1926-1985，A biographical memoir.National Academy of Sciences.Biographical Memoirs，2000，vol.78，pp.1-15.
18 Ibid.，p.6.
19 A.Mehta，Mahlon DeLong profile part 1.The Dana Foundation.http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx？id=42940.Accessed July 29，2018.
20 Ibid.
21 M.R.DeLong，“Activity of pallidal neurons during movement，”Journal of Neurophysiology，.34：414-27.1971.
22 A.Mehta，Mahlon DeLong profile part 1.The Dana Foundation.http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx？id=42940.Accessed July 29，2018.
23 https://med.emory.edu/gamechangers/researchers/delong/bio.html.Accessed July 29，2018.
24 A.Mehta，Mahlon DeLong profile part 1.The Dana Foundation.http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx？id=42940.Accessed July 29，2018.
25 Ibid.
26 http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx？id=42940.Accessed July 29，2018.
27 H.Bergman，T.Wichmann，M.R.DeLong，“Reversal of experimental parkinsonism by lesions of the subthalamic nucleus，”Science，vol.249，Issue 4975，pp.1436-1438，Sept.1990.
28 Ibid.
29 J.L.Vitek，et al.，“Randomized trial of pallidotomy versus medical therapy for Parkinson's disease，”Annals of Neurology，vol.53，2003，pp.558-569.
30 R.Williams，“Alim-Louis Benabid：Stimulation and Serendipity，”The Lancet Neurology，vol.9，Issue 12，Dec.2010，p.1152.
31 Ibid.
32 A.L.Benabid，P.Pollak，A.Louveau，S.Henry，and J.de Rougemont，“Combined（thalamotomy and stimulation）stereotactic surgery of the ⅥM thalamic nucleus for bilateral Parkinson disease，”Applied Neurophysiology，vol.50，344-46，1987.
33 G.E.Alexander，M.R.DeLong，P.L.Strick，“Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex，”Annual Review of Neuroscience，vol.9，pp.357-81，1986.
34 https://www.epo.org/learning-events/european-inventor/finalists/2016/benabid.html.Accessed August 4，2018.
35 Michael S.Okun，“Deep-Brain Stimulation—Entering the Era of Human Neural-Network Modulation，”New England Journal of Medicine，vol.371，Oct.9，pp.1369-73，2014.
第二十一章 半机器人的未来与“电智人”
1 https://wondery.com/shows/dr-death/.Accessed October 9，2019.
2 Yuval Noah Harari，Homo Deus：A Brief History of Tomorrow（New York：Harper Perennial，2018），p.21.
3 https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/facts.html.Accessed Aug.15，2018.
4 T.James，et al.，“BioMEMs—Advancing the Frontiers of Medicine，”Sensors，8（9）：pp.6077-107，2008.
5 ExMachina 2015—Behind the Scenes https://www.youtube.com/watch？v=nZcHPhGsNi0
6 Joe Rogan Experience#1169-Elon Musk https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-joerogan-experience/e/56151455.Accessed October 9，2019.
7 M.Rozenfeld，“The future of medicine might be bioelectronic implants，”http://theinstitute.ieee.org/technology-topics/life-sciences/the-future-of-medicine-might-be-bioelectronic-implants.Accessed October 9，2019.
8 Ibid.
9 https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/03/elon-musk-has-gone-public-with-his.html.Accessed October 9，2019.
10 Max Tegmark，Life 3.0：Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence（New York：Vintage Books，2017）.
11 Ibid.，p.28.
12 Ibid.，p.29.
13 Ray Kurzweil，The Singularity is Near：When Humans Transcend Biology（New York：Penguin Books，2005）p.9.
14 Ibid.，p.311.
15 Ibid.，p.310.
16 Ibid.，p.298.
17 Charles Darwin，On the Origin of Species，（London：John Murray，1885），p.429.