Daniel Defoe
Ⅰ．Brief Introduction to the W riter
1．Life Story
Defoe is the first important novelist and a versatile writer．He was born in London in 1660．His father was a London butcher．He was sent to one of the best Dissenting academies and received a very good education there．His father had wished him to be a clergyman，but hewas interested in business．After schooling，he became a hosier．He traveled in Spain，Italy，France and Germany as a merchant．Defoe started as a smallmerchant and all his life his business underwentmany ups and downs，yet hewas never beaten．His quick mind，abundant energy and never-failing enthusiasm always brought him back to his feet after a fall．In 1684 Defoemarried Mary Tuffley，and they had 8 children．In addition to his business dealings，Defoe involved himself in politics．
In the year 1685，Defoe took part in the rebellion against James IIand narrowly escaped punishment．In the Glorious Revolution，Defoe was found to be an enthusiastic supporter．He joined William's army late in 1688，and took great interest in the establishment of the new government．In a number of his pamphlets，he defended the new political order and attacked the supporters of the Stuarts．
Defoe wrote quite a number of pamphlets on the current political issues．When Queen Ann came to the throne after King William's death in 1702，many Tory High churchmen began to introduce proposals for never stopping discrimination against dissenters，Defoe wrote and published an anonymous pamphlet The ShortestWay with the Dissenters the same year，in which the author pretended to be an intolerant conservative，arguing for the suppression of nonconforming Puritans at all costs．In thisway，Defoemeant to expose the cruelty of the conservatives．Later when his real intention was revealed hewas tried，sentenced to be fined and to stand 3 days in the pillory and to be jailed．When he wasmade to stand in the pillory in the public square，he was cheered by the people as a hero．This experience marked a turning point in the career of Defoe．His another pamphlet The True－Born Englishman won him friendship from the King．
He worked as a government agent both for the Whigs and the Tories at different times．He was among the best informed political and economic pamphleteers of his time．In 1704，he founded“The Review”，a political，literary periodical．Hewrote and edited every issue himself．Secretly heworked for aman of high position，Robert Harley，later to be the head of a Toryministry．After the fall of the Tories in 1714，he went over to the triumphant Whigs and served them as totally as he had for their enemy．When Defoe's secret connection with the government became known，suspicion fell upon him，and his popularity was destroyed．
Defoe was a kind of jack-of-all-trades．He was amerchant，a soldier，economist，politician，journalist，pamphleteer，publicist and novelist．His versatility filled him up with wonder．He was great at two jobs:journalism and authorship．As a journalist he wrote for the newspapers upon such various subjects as banks，schools and education，religion and army，causes of poverty，methods of improving commerce，robbers and evils．His journalistic work was a good training for his futurewriting，because as a journalist he had great practice in writing simple，precise and straightforward prose．So he acquired a pure naked English—smooth，easy，almost colloquial yet never rude．He loved short，fresh，plain sentences．There is nothing artificial in his language．It is really common English．
2．Literary Career
Defoe's place in English literature wasmade by his novels．It is a real wonder that such a busy man as Defoe would have found time for literary creation．The year 1719 marked a new period in Defoe's literary career，for in that year when Defoe was 60 he published his Robinson Crusoe，the book whichmade him immortal．In the following years，he wrote four other novels:Captain Singleton，Moll Flanders，Colonel Jack and Roxana，apart from the second and the third part of Robinson Crusoe and A Journal of the Plague Year，a false-factual account of the Great Plague in 1664－1665．
Captain Singleton is a novel of adventure，in which Singleton is the narrator of his own story．He has been kidnapped in his in-fancy and sent to sea．He takes part in amutiny during the voyage and is put ashore in Madagascar with his comrades．Then he reaches the continent of Africa and crosses it from east to west，encountering many adventures and obtaining much gold，which he squanders away on his return to England．He takes oncemore to the sea，becomes a pirate，carrying on his piracies in theWest Indies，the Indian Ocean，and the China Seas，acquires great wealth，which he brings home，and finallymarries the sister of a shipmate．
Moll Flanders is written in the form of autobiography．Moll Flanders is the daughter of a woman who had been transported to Virginia for theft soon after her child's birth．Moll abandoned in England，is brought up in the house of a stranger．The story relates her seduction，her subsequentmarriages and liaisons，and her visit to Virginia，where she finds hermother and discovers that she herself unwittinglymarried her own brother．Leaving him and returning to England，she is presently reduced to poverty．She becomes an extremely successful pickpocket and thief，but is detected and transported to Virginia，in company with one of her former husbands，a highwayman．With the funds thateach has amassed，they set up as planters，and Moll now finds that she has inherited a plantation from hermother．She and her husband spend their declining years in an atmosphere of penitence and prosperity．
Colonel Jack is also a novel of adventure．Jack is abandoned by his parents and early becomes a pickpocket．His profession grows distasteful to him，and he enlists，but presently deserts to avoid being sent to serve in Flanders．He is kidnapped，sent to Vir-ginia，and sold to a planter．He then becomes an overseer，is given his liberty，becomes a planter himself，and acquiresmuch wealth．He returns home，has a series ofmatrimonial adventures，but finally ends in prosperity and repentance．
In the center of all the above-mentioned novels，there exist the principle problem of the Enlightenment—influence of society on man's nature．Like other writers of the Enlightenment period Defoe held thatman is good and noble by nature butmay succumb to an evil environment．
As a member of the middle class，Defoe spoke for his own class and his novelswere bestwelcomed by the less cultivated readers．In most of his works，he gave his praise to the hard-working，strongmiddle class and showed his sympathy for the poor，unfortunate people．
Today Defoe is chiefly remembered as the author of Robinson Crusoe，his masterpiece．The novel is based on a real fact．In 1704，Alexander Selkirk，a Scottish sailor，wasmarooned on an island in the Atlantic，and lived there for four or five years quite alone．The story of his adventures arouse great public interest and several records of his lonely life on an island appeared in the press．Defoe took up the subject and wrote a novel when he was almost 60．He showed the sailor's story with many incidents of his own imagination，so the novel reads like a true story．
3．W riting Style
Being a journalist and a pamphleteer and with a reporter's eye for the picturesque and a newspaperman's instinct formaking a good story，Defoe was a good storyteller．He had a gift for organizing details so vividly thathis stories are both credible and fascinating．His sentences are sometimes short，crisp and plain，but sometimes long and rambling，which leave on the reader an impression of casual narration．There is nothing artificial in his language．Instead，his language is smooth，easy，colloquial and mostly vernacular．
Ⅱ．Brief Introduction to the Selected Literary Work
Robinson Crusoe
1．Brief Summary of the Novel
Robinson Crusoe is an Englishman from the town of York in the 17th century，the youngest son of amerchant of German origin．His father encourages him to study law，but Crusoe expresses his wish to go to sea instead．His family is against Crusoe going out to sea，and explains that it is better to seek amodest，secure life for oneself．Initially，Robinson is committed to obeying his father，but he eventually succumbs to temptation and embarks on a ship bound for London with a friend．When a storm causes the near deaths of Crusoe and his friend，the friend is dissuaded from sea travel，but Crusoe still goes on to set himself up asmerchant on a ship leaving London．This trip is financially successful，and Crusoe plans another，leaving his early profits in the care of a friendly widow．The second voyage does not prove as fortunate:the ship is seized by Moorish pirates，and Crusoe is enslaved to a potentate in the North African town of Sallee．While on a fishing expedition，he and a slave boy break free and sail down the African coast．A kindly Portuguese captain picks them up，buys the slave boy from Crusoe，and takes Crusoe to Brazil．In Brazil，Crusoe establishes himself as a plantation owner and soon becomes successful．Eager for slave labor and its economic advantages，he embarks on a slave-gathering expedition toWest Africa but ends up shipwrecked off of the coast of Trinidad．
Crusoe soon learns he is the sole survivor of the expedition and seeks shelter and food for himself．He returns to the wreck's remains twelve times to salvage guns，powder，food，and other items．Onshore，he finds goats he can graze formeat and builds himself a shelter．He erects a cross that he inscribeswith the date of his arrival，September 1，1659，and makes a notch every day in order never to lose track of time．He also keeps a journal of his household activities，noting his attempts tomake candles，his lucky discovery of sprouting grain，and his construction of a cellar，among other events．In June 1660，he falls ill and hallucinates that an angel visits，warning him to repent．Drinking tobacco-steeped rum，Crusoe experiences a religious illumination and realizes that God has delivered him from his earlier sins．After recovering，Crusoe makes a survey of the area and discovers he is on an island．He finds a pleasant valley abounding in grapes，where he builds a shady retreat．Crusoe begins to feelmore optimistic about being on the island，describing himself as its“king”．He trains a pet parrot，takes a goat as a pet，and develops skills in basketweaving，bread making，and pottery．He cuts down an enormous cedar tree and builds a huge canoe from its trunk，but he discovers that he cannot move it to the sea．After building a smaller boat，he rows around the island but nearly perishes when swept away by a powerful current．Reaching shore，he hears his parrot calling his name and is thankful for being saved once again．He spends several years in peace．
One day Crusoe is shocked to discover aman's footprint on the beach．He first assumes the footprint is the devil's，then decides it must belong to one of the cannibals said to live in the region．Terrified，he arms himself and remains on the lookout for cannibals．He also builds an underground cellar in which to herd his goats at night and devises a way to cook underground．One evening he hears gunshots，and the next day he is able to see a ship wrecked on his coast．It is empty when he arrives on the scene to investigate．Crusoe once again thanks Providence for having been saved．Soon afterward，Crusoe discovers that the shore has been strewn with human carnage，apparently the remains of a cannibal feast．He is alarmed and continues to be vigilant．Later Crusoe catches sightof30 cannibals heading for shore with their victims．One of the victims is killed．Another one，waiting to be slaughtered，suddenly breaks free and runs toward Crusoe's dwelling．Crusoe protects him，killing one of the pursuers and injuring the other，whom the victim finally kills．Well-armed，Crusoe defeats most of the cannibals onshore．The victim vows total submission to Crusoe in gratitude for his liberation．Crusoe names him Friday，to commemorate the day on which his life was saved，and takes him as his servant．
Finding Friday cheerful and intelligent，Crusoe teaches him some English words and some elementary Christian concepts．Friday，in turn，explains that the cannibals are divided into distinct nations and that they only eat their enemies．Friday also informs Crusoe that the cannibals saved themen from the shipwreck Crusoe witnessed earlier，and that thosemen，Spaniards，are living nearby．Friday expresses a longing to return to his people，and Crusoe is upset at the prospect of losing Friday．Crusoe then entertains the idea ofmaking contact with the Spaniards，and Friday admits that he would rather die than lose Crusoe．The two build a boat to visit the cannibals'land together．Before they have a chance to leave，they are surprised by the arrival of 21 cannibals in canoes．The cannibals are holding 3 victims，one ofwhom is in European dress．Friday and Crusoe killmost of the cannibals and release the European，a Spaniard．Friday is overjoyed to discover that another of the rescued victims is his father．The 4 men return to Crusoe's dwelling for food and rest．Crusoe prepares to welcome them into his community permanently．He sends Friday's father and the Spaniard out in a canoe to explore the nearby land．
8 days later，the sight of an approaching English ship alarms Friday．Crusoe is suspicious．Friday and Crusoe watch as 11 men take 3 captives onshore in a boat．9 of the men explore the land，leaving 2 to guard the captives．Friday and Crusoe overpower these men and release the captives，one of whom is the captain of the ship，which has been taken in amutiny．Shouting to the remaining mutineers from different points，Friday and Crusoe confuse and tire themen by making them run from place to place．Eventually they confront themutineers，telling them that allmay escape with their lives except the ringleader．The men surrender．Crusoe and the captain pretend that the island is an imperial territory and that the governor has spared their lives in order to send them all to England to face justice．Keeping 5 men as hostages，Crusoe sends the other men out to seize the ship．When the ship is brought in，Crusoe nearly faints．
On December 19，1686，Crusoe boards the ship to return to England．There，he finds his family is deceased except for 2 sisters．His widow friend has kept hismoney safe，and after traveling to Lisbon，Crusoe learns from the Portuguese captain that his plantations in Brazil have been highly profitable．He arranges to sell his Brazilian lands．Wary of sea travel，Crusoe attempts to return to England by land but is threatened by bad weather and wild animals in northern Spain．Finally arriving back in England，Crusoe receivesword that the sale of his plantations has been completed and that he hasmade a considerable fortune．After donating a portion to the widow and his sisters，Crusoe is restless and considers returning to Brazil，but he is dissuaded by the thought that he would have to become Catholic．Hemarries，and hiswife dies．Crusoe finally departs for the East Indies as a trader in 1694．He revisits his island，finding that the Spaniards are governing it well and that it has become a prosperous colony．
2．Analyses of the M ajor Characters Robinson
Robinson is a representative of the spirit of individual enterprise and colonial expansion of the rising English bourgeoisie at the early stage of its development．In Robinson we can see successes，failures，and contradictions ofmodern man．He ismost practical，and exact，always religious and at the same timemindful of his own profit．His every voyage is concerned with some commercial enterprise．he owns plantations where colored slaves are exploited．To be a bourgeois he does not condemn Negro－Slavery in his book．Though Robinson labors for his own existence，as soon as a native appears on the island，He acts like amaster．The firstword Friday learns from Robinson is“master”．Here lies the beginning of colonization．
In the struggle against the hostile nature，Robinson is a hero，and an adventurer．He is a typical 18th century English middleclassman，with a great capacity for work，inexhaustible energy，courage，patience and persistence in overcoming obstacles．He is industrious，resourceful and independent．
He is the very prototype of the empire builder，the pioneer colonist．Defoe values human labor and the Puritan courage．According to him it is human labor and the Puritan courage that save Robinson from despair．At the same time both human labor and the Puritan courage are a source of pride and happiness．
When he finds the footprint on the beach，he shows his fear and worries，which shows that he is a sensibleman．Of course his urge to subjugate others is highly objectionable．
Friday
He is the first non-white character to be given a realistic，individualized and humane portrayal．He is not just a Caribbean tribesman，but all the natives of America，Asia，and Africa who would latter be apposed in the age of European imperialism．He is an enduring political symbol of racial injustice in a modern world in imperialist expansion．In the story Friday is more emotional towards his family than Crusoe．He is loyal enough to Crusoe in asking Crusoe to kill him rather than leave him．His exuberance and emotional directness often point out the wooden conventionality of Crusoe's personality．
3．Theme of the Novel
3.1 The Ambivalence of Mastery
Crusoe's success inmastering his situation，overcoming his obstacles，and controlling his environment shows the condition ofmastery in a positive light，at least at the beginning of the novel．Crusoe lands in an inhospitable environment and makes it his home．His taming and domestication of wild goats and parrots with Crusoe as theirmaster illustrates his newfound control．Moreover，Crusoe's mastery over naturemakes him amaster of his fate and of himself．Early in the novel，he frequently blames himself for disobeying his father's advice or blames the destiny that drove him to sea．But in the later partof the novel，Crusoe stops viewing himself as a passive victim and strikes a new note of self-determination．In building a home for himself on the island，he finds that he is a master of his life—he suffers a hard fate and still finds prosperity．But this theme ofmastery becomesmore complex and less positive after Friday's arrival，when the idea ofmastery comes to applymore to unfair relationships between humans．Crusoe teaches Friday the word“master”even before teaching him“yes”and“no”，and indeed he lets him“know thatwas to be Crusoe's name”．Crusoe never entertains the idea of considering Friday a friend or equal—for some reason，superiority comes instinctively to him．We further question Crusoe's right to be called“master”when he later refers to himself as“king”over the natives and Europeans，who are his“subjects”．
3.2 The Necessity of Repentance
Crusoe's experiences constitute not simply an adventure story in which thrilling things happen，but also a moral tale illustrating the right and wrong ways to live one's life．Thismoral and religious dimension of the tale is indicated in the Preface，which states that Crusoe's story is being published to instructothers in God'swisdom，and one vital partof thiswisdom is the importance of repenting one's sins．While it is important to be grateful for God'smiracles，as Crusoe is when his grain sprouts，it is not enough simply to express gratitude or even to pray to God，as Crusoe does several timeswith few results．Crusoe needs repentancemost，as he learns from the fiery angelic figure that comes to him during a feverish hallucination and says，“Seeing all these things have not brought thee to repentance，now thou shalt die．”Crusoe believes thathismajor sin is his rebellious behavior toward his father，which he refers to as his“original sin”，which is like Adam and Eve's first disobedience of God．This biblical reference also suggests that Crusoe's exile from civilization represents Adam and Eve's expulsion from Eden．
For Crusoe，repentance consists of acknowledging his wretchedness and his absolute dependence on the Lord．This admission marks a turning point in Crusoe's spiritual consciousness，and is almost a born-again experience for him．After repentance，he complainsmuch less about his sad fate and views the island more positively．Crusoemay never have learned to repent if he had never sinfully disobeyed his father in the first place．Thus，as powerful as the theme of repentance is in the novel，it is nevertheless complex and ambiguous．
3.3 The Importance of Self－Awareness
Crusoe's arrival on the island does notmake him revert to a brute existence controlled by animal instincts，and，unlike animals，he remains conscious of himself at all times．Indeed，his island existence actually deepens his self-awareness as hewithdraws from the external socialworld and turns inward．The idea that the individual must keep a careful reckoning of the state of his own soul is a key point in the Presbyterian doctrine that Defoe took seriously all his life．We see that in his normal day-to-day activities，Crusoe keeps accounts of himself enthusiastically and in variousways．For example，it is significant that Crusoe'smakeshift calendar does not simplymark the passing of days，but instead more egocentricallymarks the days he has spent on the island:it is about him，a sort of selfconscious or autobiographical calendar with him at its center．Similarly，Crusoe obsessively keeps a journal to record his daily activi-ties，even when they amount to nothing more than finding a few pieces ofwood on the beach or waiting inside while it rains．Crusoe feels the importance of staying aware of his situation at all times．We can also sense Crusoe's impulse toward self-awareness in the fact that he teaches his parrot to say the words，“Poor Robin Crusoe，where have you been?”This sort of self-examining thought is natural for anyone alone on a desert island，but it is given a strange intensity when we recall that Crusoe has spentmonths teaching the bird to say it back to him．Crusoe teaches nature itself to voice his own self-awareness．
4．Influence of the Novel
The book was so well received by the English readers that to some extent wherever there was a Bible there was a copy of Robinson Crusoe．This could be best explained by the following incident．One day when there was a violent thunderstorm in a remote village，a young apprentice，the only learned man of the place was asked to read the Bible to stop the thunder．In great haste，the boy mistook Robinson Crusoe as the Bible because the two books were put side by side on the same shelf and read a large part of the novel as prayers to comfort the alarmed villagers．From thiswe can see to some extent the book is as important to people as the Bible．
Ⅲ．Latest Critical Commentary
《鲁滨逊漂流记》是英国作家丹尼尔·笛福的代表作。该书讲述了一个叫做鲁滨逊的人在出海航行时，途中遇上大风，船上的人都丧生了，唯有他活了下来，并漂流到了一个荒岛上。他用28年的时间，以自己勤劳的双手为自己创造了一个生存的家园，并以自己的勇气与毅力，克服了种种困难。小说主要反映了英国社会在18世纪经历了巨大而深远的变革时期，走上坡路的资产阶级形象。同时，通过许多具体而真实的细节来描述人物性格，以大量的、不同环境中发生的日常事件构成不平凡的故事，给人以强烈的真实感和新鲜感。该书第一部分是鲁滨逊离家三次航海的经历;第二部分具体描述了鲁滨逊在荒无人烟的孤岛上打猎、隐居山洞、从事农业生产等情况和同自然界进行的艰苦斗争;第三部分叙述他从荒岛上回来以后的事情。在这三部分中第二部分是小说的主体。小说故事情节引人入胜，叙事语言通俗易懂，是一部雅俗共赏的好作品。小说一经问世即风靡全球且经久不衰，在世界各地拥有一代又一代的读者。据说，除了《圣经》之外，《鲁滨逊漂流记》是再版最多的一本书。该书被誉为英国文学史上的第一部长篇小说，成了世界文学宝库中一部不朽的名著。多少年来《鲁滨逊漂流记》一直受到各国翻译评论界的喜爱和重视，但在不同时期，人们对笛福及其作品的认识和评论差别很大。近年来国内外学术界的学者们运用西方文艺批评理论和方法、现代阐释学批评方法、文本分析等方法对笛福的《鲁滨逊漂流记》进行全面评析和多元阐释，研究成果非常丰富，大致可以分为鲁滨逊形象研究、作者笛福的研究、作品特色研究等方面。
鲁滨逊形象研究
《鲁滨逊漂流记》中在鲁滨逊身上表现了强烈的资产阶级进取精神和启蒙意识，作者笛福赋予鲁滨逊种种优良品质:勇敢、机智、热情、坚强、乐观，并表现了当时追求冒险，倡导个人奋斗的社会风气，书中人物鲁滨逊也成了与困难抗争的典型，他的生活充满了冒险与刺激，鲁滨逊是一个极具冒险精神的资产者。
在荒岛生活的28年间，他用自己勤劳的双手为自己创造了一个生存的家园，并以自己的勇气与毅力，克服了种种困难。纵观鲁滨逊一生的事业，从经商开始，也以经商结束。中间贩卖过黑奴，经营过种植园。他是一个名副其实的资产阶级分子，他的意识形态是资产阶级的意识形态。他不是一个想当终身小铺子老板的人，他的目的也不在英伦三岛，而在海外，或者说是整个世界。作为人而言他也惟利是图，野心勃勃，不惜冒很大的风险去“创业”，这正是资产阶级个人企业家的典型形象。(吴瑛，2002)
其次，作为经典的历险传奇故事，它之所以能家喻户晓，是因为在传统意义上，小说故事中的主人公鲁滨逊是一个英雄，他以其顽强、坚韧和智慧与艰险的自然环境作斗争，最终成功地成为荒岛的主人，展示了主人公在困境中坚忍不拔的精神、挑战生活的勇气和战胜困难的智慧。对此也有学者从另一角度阐述小说的更深层的社会意义和历史价值，他们认为小说的主人公鲁滨逊是当时资本主义上升时期的中小资产阶级殖民者的形象，是一个剥削者、殖民者。(姜惠玲，2002)小说本身起着殖民主义的文本宣传作用。(闫爱静、刘建辉，2003)通过鲁滨逊与其仆人星期五的关系，可以说作者把殖民主义带到了荒岛，并使之合法化。岛上28年的独自生活，他创造出一个小小的王国，满足自己的占有欲，这些都充分体现了资本主义原始积累和最初的殖民主义时期殖民者的形象。
考虑到笛福的清教背景，在鲁滨逊形象结构中，有学者甚至认为鲁滨逊是一个清教徒。保尔·亨特(1988)指出《鲁滨逊漂流记》在一个非常深刻的层面上体现了人类对清教的看法:通过某一个体的生活历程来描述人类的反叛、受罚、忏悔和得救的过程。众所周知，清教主义者把罪过看成是人类最邪恶的敌人，是它导致了人类的堕落。笛福把鲁滨逊描绘成一个犯有原罪的人，这种原罪支配着他的生活，并把他引向需要上帝来拯救的困境。鲁滨逊的原罪表现为人类最基本的一种罪恶形式:肉体和精神的不安分，进而导致对自身状况的不满足。鲁滨逊倔强地一次次进行与他的使命不相符的冒险，他前进的道路受到上帝的阻拦，但他看不到这些障碍，还是固执地继续他的行程。小说中主人公肉体的旅行实际上是他精神上误入歧途的形象表述。在忏悔之后作为神的救助的受益者，他明白上帝只是部分地出现在自然界里。因此，他需要将自然转变成可以持续提供营养来源的场所。这样与他刚登上荒岛时的境况相比，他已从消极的索取转向积极的开发。学者们指出鲁滨逊对上帝的臣服说明他需要一种精神上的寄托。这一转变使鲁滨逊从偏执狂式的孤独状态中走了出来，使荒岛从囚牢变成了花园。从这时开始，鲁滨逊开始转向荒岛本身，去开发它，使它为自己服务，并且以各种方式享受荒岛上的一切。(钟鸣，2000)
还有学者从清教徒有很强的禁欲倾向这一观点出发，指出禁欲是清教徒追求救赎的主要方式。笛福让他笔下的鲁滨逊在岛上的生活涉及到人类生活的许多方面，但有一点他却给排除在外，这便是性，回避性的问题。在学者们看来一个男人，孤零零地生活在荒岛之上，既没有有关性的回忆，亦没有幻想，他似乎真的能做到没有“肉体的情欲”，似乎性的问题被忽略了。在学者们看来笛福之所以这样做，目的是为了集中展现鲁滨逊的意志强大到可以克服自身肉体的欲望。(靳晓静，2008)
有的学者认为在宗教思想上，笛福受洛克等哲学家的影响，反对专制，主张信仰自由，他的这种宗教观集中地在鲁滨逊这个人物形象身上充分地表现出来。(杜曼、叶尔江，2003)在小说中，当鲁滨逊遭到天灾人祸，感到恐惧，面临死亡时，他就诚心地向上帝祷告、悔罪、得到力量和安慰，寻找内心的平安，每当遇到种种艰难险阻后，读《圣经》和祷告，已成为他在荒岛生活的重要组成部分。从鲁滨逊28年的生活经历看，鲁滨逊在荒岛日常生活中对上帝的需要很大程度上是一种功利性的考虑，而且是应时性的。一方面当他需要上帝的时候，他就想到上帝的存在，他需要上帝把他从孤独绝望的困境中拯救出来，这一点在鲁滨逊生病和做梦两个场景里显得非常明显。用身体上的疾病来表现精神上的疾病，把生病看成是有罪之人进行忏悔的契机，成了鲁滨逊获得自知之明和最终获得自由的方式。另一方面当他不需要上帝的时候，上帝是否存在则是无关紧要的。他离开荒岛后，就没有向上帝祈祷。这样上帝成为他外在的精神力量和起到道德自我完善作用，从而体现了笛福宗教信仰自由的思想。
更有学者认为《鲁滨逊漂流记》不仅反映了笛福深刻的宗教观，而且表现了资本主义不断向外扩张的意识形态和保守的宗教、道德观念之间的冲突。小说似乎试图通过具体的例证来说明一个具有清教思想的商人充满矛盾的内心世界:物质上获取商业利润的动机与精神上获得上帝拯救的要求之间的冲突。(钟鸣，2000)纵观全书可以清楚地看到鲁滨逊在荒岛上经历了对自我的支配，对环境的支配，对动物的支配，对野人和欧洲人的支配的过程，他的行动不断走向更高的支配形式。《鲁滨逊漂流记》所表现的实际上是两种价值观念——资本主义那种获取、操纵和支配外在世界的冲动和清教思想中对上帝的服从——之间的冲突。从更深层的意义上说，笛福试图解决那个时代的经济、道德难题，即解决对上帝意志的服从与在世俗社会里生存和发迹之间的矛盾。通过描写鲁滨逊在荒岛上的经历，笛福使这两种观念达到一种完美的结合。一方面，他希望资本主义得到蓬勃发展。另一方面，他又希望资本主义这种充满活力的个性主义能够在理性的支配下行动。这无疑体现了笛福的乌托邦思想，鲁滨逊的荒岛实际上是清教主义的伊甸园。在学者们看来小说中上帝为了改变他那难以驾驭的天性将他弃置于“绝望之岛”，然后将他驯服。鲁滨逊对山羊的驯服实际上是在重复他自己的故事，他在荒岛上的事业就如同上帝在人间的事业，后来星期五的转变实际上重复了山羊被驯服这一行为。在有些批评家看来鲁滨逊对星期五的拯救说明他已成为上帝的使者。(Harold，1988)在鲁滨逊对欧洲人的支配过程中他俨然是上帝的化身，既能超越环境而又能沉浸在其中。
作者笛福的研究
笛福是英国文学史上第一个重要的小说家。他出生于一个商人家庭，青年时期曾经商多年，又当过兵，到过西班牙、意大利、法国、德国等地。笛福在经营的同时，从事政治活动，积极主张社会改革。他反对专制，主张民权，曾因发表讽刺国教专制的论文被禁、罚款、戴枷示众，以致破产。在1704—1713年服刑期间，他创办了《评论》杂志，这是英国第一份定期出版的文化与政治刊物，这本杂志在英国乃至世界新闻出版史上也占有很重要的地位。他50多岁时，又因写作政论鼓吹改革而两次被捕入狱，因此历史上他又被称为“多难之政论作家、政论杂志编辑兼记者”。
正是由于这些丰富的经历，为他进行文学创作创造了必需的思想和写作条件。他近60岁时，才开始创作《鲁滨逊漂流记》。这部小说于1719年出版后，立即成为脍炙人口的读物。此后，他还陆续写了数部小说、50余篇诗歌、政论文以及历史、经济论著、游记等。然而，笛福晚年的生活却十分贫困，最后为避债死于异地他乡。笛福的小说创作是标志近代英国小说逐步形成的里程碑。(杨岂深、孙铢，1981)他的作品具有非常浓厚的时代感，体现了18世纪英国社会经历的巨大而深远的变革。
他作品中一大部分都与商业有关，可以说他是英国早期的一个资产阶级政治经济学家。(吴瑛，2002)有学者认为笛福是资产阶级的代言人，(吴瑛，2002)还有学者认为他反映了上升时期资产阶级的思想感情和他们的阶级本质，既是一个具有冒险精神和实干精神的资产者，又是具有强烈私人占有欲的殖民主义者。(金留春，1979)茅盾(1980)先生也指出“此书是礼赞了资产者的个人主义和自由主义的作品。”
有学者从笛福成长于典型的清教徒家庭出发，认为虽然笛福违背他父亲希望他成为一名牧师的愿望，自己选择从商，但是清教徒家庭氛围对他的思想和性格产生了深远影响。笛福只是寄希望于鲁滨逊来实现他的清教改革之梦。(齐昂昆、于洪颖，2006)小说中鲁滨逊的成功归功于他顽强的个性、坚持不懈的努力、充足的勇气和耐心、勇于向前的探索精神、生存的智慧，所有这些又完完全全是当时英国新兴商人的本质特点。鲁滨逊之所以生存下来是因为他辛勤努力劳动的结果，这正是清教徒获得上帝拯救的根本方式，充分体现上帝只帮助那些帮助自己的人。笛福对鲁滨逊做面包的情况加以详细描述，鲁滨逊用数月时间做成一只独木舟，这些都表明他独立自主的劳动精神。借助鲁滨逊的故事，笛福是为了指导人们认识上帝的智慧，最重要的就是要人们懂得忏悔的重要性。同时，对上帝创造的奇迹表示感谢也是很重要的，正如鲁滨逊发现谷子发芽而十分感激上帝一样。只有从心底怀有这种感激心理他才可能从当时的疾病中得到拯救。在笛福看来忏悔包括对自己不幸遭遇的接受和对上帝完全的依赖，正是这种接受标志着他灵魂的再生。忏悔后他很少抱怨不幸的遭遇，而是更加积极地面对岛上生活。笛福清教主义思想在作品中的另一个体现就是个人主义，这也是早期资本主义发展的原动力，资本主义自由思想形成的源泉。鲁滨逊相信自己，依赖自己，为自己自豪，但他却并不认为自己是英雄，这就是个人主义的根本所在。对此正如伊恩·瓦特(1984)所指出的，笛福的作品是对清教主义的民主个人主义和对日常现实生活世界及居住其中的那些人的如实描绘之间的联系用小说做出的最好说明。
还有学者从后殖民主义的视角来解读笛福和他创造的神话，认为笛福将一个荒岛精心制作成一个父权帝国，并将鲁滨逊包装成一位文化超人，这种夸大自己阶级创造力量的帝国叙事，表现了强烈的种族自恋情节。小说中笛福对“食人生番”的描述是对土著进行肆无忌惮的野蛮化书写，折射出了作者转嫁灾祸的深层文化心理，同时释放了欧洲文明中来自森林时代的文化记忆。(蹇昌槐，2003)
作品特色研究
《鲁滨逊漂流记》的巨大成功不仅在于它引人入胜的故事，还在于它高超的艺术手法，有许多学者都从不同的视角研究了笛福作品的艺术特点。英国由于座落在浩瀚的大海之上，这个国家的人民自古就具有海洋民族的特点，即天性倔强，爱冒险，充满探索精神和对外扩张的欲望。正因为英吉利民族的这些特点，其文学中经常会有一些以冒险，扩张，猎奇为主题，以世外桃源或陌生荒岛为生活场景的作品。文艺复兴之后，英国开始占据了海上霸权，不断的向海外开拓殖民地，航海业就由最初的谋生手段变成了进行贸易和扩张的手段。“荒岛文学”也随之发展了起来。有学者认为鲁滨逊所经历的流落荒岛，岛上生存，回归文明社会这条主线，充分证明《鲁滨逊漂流记》是荒岛文学中的杰作。(苏畅、张鹏，2001)对此观点郭艳英(2005)也表示赞同，她在文章中也指出小说具有鲜明的“荒岛文学”特色。
还有学者指出笛福采用了有意识的现实主义创作手法。(苏艳斋，2007)这一特征在《鲁滨逊漂流记》第三部的序言中可以看到:“这个故事，虽然是寓言性的，但同时又是历史性的，它是一种绝无仅有的生活苦难和一种无与伦比的生存方式的再现。此外，这个故事，或者说这个故事的大部分，直接暗示一个至今还活着的，而且颇有名气的一个人的一生，正是他的经历构成这部书的主要内容。”(Defoe，1965)在小说一开始，鲁滨逊就将他自己的身世缓缓道来，让读者感到仿佛是一位刚认识的朋友在讲述自己的亲身经历。笛福的小说叙事风格自然，不同于其他的小说和浪漫文学作家。他叙述的故事具有真实性，当你读起来的时候，令你无法不相信有一个真实的人正在向你讲述发生在他身上的真实故事。(苏艳斋，1994)笛福轻松使用第一人称叙述形式，模仿日记和忏悔回忆录的技巧，这种第一人称的叙述形式在笛福作品中形成了一种特色。(安德鲁·桑德斯，2004)
在探索《鲁滨逊漂流记》中的现实主义创作手法时，有的学者们除了对上述提到的小说的取材详实和小说采用第一人称的叙事视角的观点表示赞同之外，他们还指出小说中现实主义创作手法还体现在精确的背景描写、主人公具体、详实的行动描写以及小说的语言特色等方面。(王晓丽，2007)精确的背景描写具体体现在作者用真实的地点作为故事的叙述背景，并以实践作为贯穿整个叙事过程的链条，强化了故事的真实性。笛福笔下的地名采用的名字都是真实存在的，都是能在世界地图找得到的地方。对时间的表现手法是现实主义的又一确切表现。在小说第二部中作者用一个章节的篇幅，详细叙述了鲁滨逊的日记，他的叙述具体到了每一天。可以说鲁滨逊在海岛上的经历是以时间为主线来进行的。除此之外笛福还重视对事件过程的描写及具体物件的罗列，尤其是精细的账目、精确的财产记录、详尽的盈亏账目的罗列等。对主人公具体、详实的行动描写，具体体现在用人物的真实行动和真实的细节来刻划人物性格，正是运用上述艺术表现手法，作者向我们表明故事的真实性，以此来增强故事的可信性。至于小说的语言作者完全采用通俗易懂，叙述流畅的语言，大胆地运用活的口语进行写作。小说中类似日常口语式的同语反复、叙事重复、罗嗦冗长、平铺直叙、措词简单等文体现象，完全符合一个受教育程度不高的叙事者的口吻，从而又增强了这部小说的真实性。
还有学者从小说创作的真实性和小说的教益作用两个方面论述了笛福关于小说创作的思想，认为笛福否定了传统的虚构创作，创立了一种类似于让客观事实自己说话的现实主义创作模式。他承袭了以往道德教诲的观念，但在处理方法上却取得了突破，在不损害小说真实性的情况下，将道德观念渗透到叙事形式之中。
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