Charles Dickens
Ⅰ．Brief Introduction to the W riter
1．Life Story
Charles Dickens，the greatest representative of English critical realism，was born in 1812 at Portsmouth，Scotland．In 1821 the Dickens family moved to a poor quarter in London．Mr．Dickens was heavily in debt and did not know which way to turn formoney．The few possessions they had were sold one by one，but things still went from bad to worse．Finally Mr．Dickenswas taken to prison in London in debt．Shortly afterwards Mrs．Dickens and the younger children went to the prison too to join the father．
The 12－year－old Charles，weak and sensitive，was sent to work in an underground cellar at a blacking factory in the East end of London．Work there began at8 in themorning and ended at8 at night．This was the most unhappy time of all in his life．He was lonely and hungry．He felt his early hope of growing up to be a learned and famousman broke into piece in his heart．Sundays he spent at the prison and during theweek hewas outworking all day．He had to keep himself in food on his own wages．
Then his fortune took a turn for the better．He left the blacking factory and studied at school again．But the hardship and suffering put upon the sensitive young Charles had left an everlasting painful brand on the boy'smind．Years laterwhen hewas aman，hewould notwalk by the place where the factory had been situated．All this had a deep influence on Dickens's thought and work in after years．When Dickens was 15，he left school for good and became a lawyer's clerk．
After work he learned shorthand and visited the British Museum Library，filling up the gaps in his education by reading．The work at the lawyer's office afforded him the basis of an opinion of the law of England．Then he became a Parliamentary reporter for newspapers．Thus Dickens gained a first-hand knowledge of the parliamentary government under capitalism and he was firm in his understanding of it as an instrument for control and disguising the power of the upper classes．In 1834 he was taken on the staff of a newspaper and went all over the country getting news，writing stories，meeting people and learning about life in general．
At this time，Dickens wrote a number of little sketches．His first book Sketches by Boz appeared in 1836．In the same year，a publishing house had a collection of humorous pictures so that pictures and articles could appear together in a magazine．And the publisher wanted to get some short articles．Someone suggested that the newspaper reporter Dickensmight do the job．He accepted the offer，expanded it into a long novel．Thus Pickwick Papers came into being．It tells of the adventures of Mr．Pickwick and his club．Dickens had become the most popular living novelist of his day． Pickwick Papers swept triumphantly across England．Dickens was then 24．It at once lifted him into a position of fame and fortune．And since then his life became one of the endless hard work．He published 17 novels and at the same time hewas the owner or editor of several newspapers and magazines．
From 1838 to 1841 appeared Olive Twist，which was one of the best in his early works．In 1842 Dickens made a trip to America and his unfavorable impression of the life in the U.S.A．were reflected in American Notes and Martin Chuzzlewit．Since1844 he had spentmuch time on the European continent，especially in France and Italy．The great social movements in the middle of the 19th century inspired Dickens's famous novels of social criticism．Representative workswere Dombey and Son，David Copperfield，and Hard Times．A Tale of Two Cities was a historical novel of the French Revolution in this period．It was followed by more novels on contemporary themes like Great Expectations and Our Mutual Friends．
In 1867－1868 Dickens made his second trip to America．Back in England he started Edwin Brood，his last work，but it remained unfinished owing to the writer's sudden death in 1870 at the age of 58．
Dickens the man is as interesting as Dickens the writer．He enjoyed life and was a man of action and business in the world as well as a studentand awriter of books．Hewas endowed with formidable energies and many talents．He would have succeeded in almost any profession to which he devoted himself．His influence upon his agewas extensive．In his early years of his career hewas the best shorthand reporter on the London press and the best professional actor on the stage．After great successes as a novelist，he became one of themost successful periodical editors of his time．It is said that he“warmed up the social atmosphere wherever he appeared．”His conversation was friendly．His laugh was brimful of enjoyment．His enthusiasm was boundless．At home he entertained his friends，most of them authors，journalists，actors and artists．He devoted a lot of time to his enthusiastic search for and generous assistance to young talents．Above all he was on intimate termswith his readers．His long love-affair with his reading public，when all is said，is by far themost interesting love-affair of his life．
Politically and ideologically Dickens was a Radical．He saw life from the point of view of the poor of a great city．He showed great concern about social problems，supported all proposals for social reform，advocated an increase of democracy in all fields of life and championed the course of the oppressed．Dickens maintained an unbroken faith in peoplewith an entire pessimism as to Capitalist society．His political creed was summed up by himself in a famous saying，“My faith in the people governing is，on the whole，infinitesimal，my faith in the people governed is，on the whole，illimitable．”His love for the working people was deep and sincere．To him the greatest literature was literature for the people．It is not strange that from the very beginning of his literary career the critics of the upper class discerned a penchant for the“out casts of humanity”in his works while the people of the lower class always remained his enthusiastic readers．Thus the publication of each of his books became the concern of thousands of households of his own day．
2．Literary Career
For the convenience of study，Dickens's literary careermay be divided into 3 periods．The first period extended from 1836 to 1841．At this stage he believed that all the evils of the capitalist world would be put right if only men treated each other with kindness，justice and sympathetic understanding．According to him there were，of course，rich people，but thesewere casual，accidental．Poor people's ill effects would disappear if only the rich used their power and wealthy sympathetically to help the poor to escape from poverty．Dickens thought that the whole social problemswould be settled if only every employer reformed himself according to the model set by the kind gentlemen in his novels．This optimism was characteristic of the petty-bourgeois humanitarians of his time．
The Posthumous Paper of the Pickwick Club is the work first made Dickens famous as a popular writer of novels．The Pickwick Paper gives a rather comprehensive picture of early 19th century England，and affords the readers awhole gallery of vivid portraits of all walks of life．The story evolves round the adventures of Mr．Pickwick，a retired well-to-domerchantand somewhat eccentric old fellow，who is the founder and chairman of the Pickwick Club．He is benevolent and good-hearted，but often gets himself involved in unpleasant situation as a result of goodness of heart．The plot is rather formless，but the novel fascinates the readers from beginning to end by its comical episodes．The novel has been called“the su-preme epic of English life”．Dickens was young when he wrote it，so the novel is full of youthful exuberance．In the novel，there are the farcical election contest，themockery of army officers，the ridicule of law courts and lawsuits，the vivid description of the debtors' prison，the satire of the money worship in the bourgeois society，and deep exposure of the parliamentary system of England．But the novel doesn't seem to have deep hatred for the bourgeois society as a whole．It is not satire but humor that dominates the novel．
The novel Oliver Twist，written in 1837－1838，tells the story of an orphan boy，whose adventures provide a description of the lower depths of London．In the preface to the novel，Dickens proclaims himself a realist．He makes his readers aware of the inhumanity of city life under capitalism．The great critical realist voices the helpless sufferings of the poor and the oppressed．In the vivid description of the thieves'den and of the underworld of London，the author succeeds in calling forth the reader's sympathy for the down－trodden people of the lower classes．Among the characters of the lower class，Oliver is the only who emerges happy and successful in the end．This happy issue in which Dickens's novels usually end comes about as a result of his optimistic belief in the inevitable triumph of good over evil．The novel is a powerful exposure of bourgeois society．It is said that the publication of Oliver Twist brought about some bettering of conditions in the English working house during the author's day．
The second period of Dickens's literary creation extended from 1842 to 1850，in which Dickens visited the United States twice．He experienced American democracy，open-mindedness and hospitality．All these found reflection in his American Notes，which was a book of sketches．Butwhat impressed him most in America was the rule of dollars and the enormously corrupting influence of wealth and power．Vulgar selfishness prevailed everywhere and concealed the fine qualities of the people．Dickens's optimism about capitalist society was thus profoundly shaken．In his novel Martin Chuzzlewit，he showed his condemnation tomoney and hypocrisy．According to him，moneymotive is the fundamental cause of its social hypocrisy and rottenness and the harm is done to the young Americans．The novel is one of Dickens'smasterpieces of social satire for its criticism of both the British and American bourgeoisie．
Christmas stories at this period set forth the author's firm belief that love generates love and evil generates evil，which helps spread the true Christmas spirit in the country．
The novel Dombey and Son wasmostly written while Dickens was traveling on the Continent．It is a story about pride ofwealth or purse-pride，which twists the family relationship between husband and wife，parents and children．In the novel Dickens showed us the pride of the upper strata of the British bourgeoisie in themid－19th century．From his point of view，the expansion of capitalism produced a handful ofmagnates of trade and industry，who wielded a power as great as that of Roman emperors and who exacted from all people around them an undisputed obedience．Mr．Dombey in the novelwas the owner of the rich shipping house Dombey and Son．He was very proud of his wealth and thought only of enlarging his business．He was indifferent to his first wife who died when she gave birth to a son．He ignored his daughter's need for love and care．He was so strictwith his son which made him feel no human warmth，as a resulthe sent the boy to early grave．He boughta second wife in order to have a heir，but his arrogant treatment of her drove her away．Finally he was ruined by the villainous manager and lost all his property．His final failure confirmed the inevitable end to such obsession and false pride and called for a better，healthier human relationship and socialmorality．
The publication of Dombey and Son was the turning point for Dickens，from then on he replaced the picaresque romance or series of adventures in his earlier novels with the closely knit and logic plot of hismaturerworks，and at the same time hemademore open and ruthless attacks on the vices of the bourgeoisie than he had done in his earlier works．His social criticism became deeper and more powerful．
Dickens's last novel of the early group was David Copperfield，which was published in 1849－1950．Itwas an autobiographical account of childhood，growth and maturity of Dickens himself．Dickens regarded it as his“favorite child”．The story was told in the first person，through themouth of the hero，David Copperfield．In David Copperfield Dickensmade good use of his own life experience to expose the social evils of the day，such as themiseries of childlabor，the tyranny in schools，the debtors'prison，as well as the cruelty，the immorality and the treachery thatwere prevalent in the English bourgeoisworld．In the novel，readers could find the scene of rejection in childhood，humiliating labor in a blacking factory，apprenticeship to a law office，life as a journalist and eventual success as a novelist．The novelwaswritten from a child's perspective．This gave the work a truthfulness to the real life．More than a personal record of the hero，the novel was also a broad picture of the society of the author's day．
The techniques，both of the fiction itself and of the social criticism embodied within it，were relatively straightforward and the objects of his attack were easily recognizable，and once the abuse had been overcome，theway was open to a happy conclusion．Themain impression of the book was one of good humor，tolerance and fun．David's early suffering is adequately compensated with a rich，happymarriage and successful literary career，just like the author's．The world for Dickens was still full of hope and sunshine．The youthful brightness and optimism is also manifest in the constant jokes and laughter．
The last period of Dickens's literary career began with the publication of Bleak House in 1852－1853，which marks the beginning of thematurity of Dickens both as a conscious artist and as a critical realistic novelist．The novel is aimed at the abuses of the English courts，in which the Bleak House is notmerely the name of the book and of a house，but also it stands for the English society of the time where the action takes place．By using the novel，Dickens criticized the legal system and practices that aim at devouring every penny of the clients．In the end of the novel it turns out Dickens consciously and subconsciously showed himself more and more at oddswith bourgeois society and more and more aware of and exasperated by the absence of any readily available alternative，as a result the novels of this period weremuch“darker”in content．
In theworks of this period Dickens showed his development towards a highly conscious artist of themodern type．There aremany symbols in the novels，not only providing the work a predominant atmosphere but also highlighting its central concern．The institutions attacked are importantnot in themselves but asmetaphors for a repressive social psychology．In addition，the structures are usually not only more complex but also well framed．The plots are often multiplied and well developed．
Hard Times attacks the“perfect”system of education and the bourgeois utilitarianism．Under the guiding principle of“Facts alone arewanted in life”，the education system aims atextinguishing art imaginativeness or youthful tendencies．The novelmakes frontal attack upon the wholemoral and ethical system of capitalism as represented by the Manchester school economists．As a result，Tom becomes unprincipled，dishonest，mean and selfish，while Louisa is forced into elopement．Dickens's intense disappointment and repressed rage at the social evils of his day found reflection there．Dickens also describes the Chartist Movement with great artistic power．He tries to prove that it is just and proper for the workers to ask for better conditions and that the struggle of the workers is the simple result of their aspirations towin their human rights．Dickens shows a genuine sympathy for the worker．
A Tale of Two Cities is a novel based on the French Revolution in which the two cities are Pairs and London in the time of that revolution．The theme underlying the novel is the idea“Where there is oppression，there is revolution”．The novel takes the side of the common people against that of the privileged classes，in which Dickens shows his fury with the inhuman lawless aristocrats．But the book，on the whole，is not a very correct presentation of the great French Revolution because of the author's disgust with violence and blood-shedding．
Dickens's final novels also include Great Expectation，Our Mutual Friend，and the unfinished Edwin Drood．Among these novel，like David Copperfield，Great Expectation is a novel of memory，which draws on parts of the author's personal experience and thus a first-person narration．The hero Pip's development through childhood and youth besetwith hard tests of character if traced critically but sympathetically．It is a novel about great expectations，ormore correctly here，dreams．The novel can also be taken as a realistic study of growth of human nature from the social critical pointof view in which Dickens shows the overwhelming social environmentwhich bringsmoral degeneration and destruction to people．Our Mutual Friend is the last complete work by Dickens，which is regarded as hismostmature work．The novel is based on two stories about love and money and is a powerful anatomy of the corrupting and corrupted society，ruled and moved by greed and ambition．The novel is carefully constructed in plot，in which the monetary and class values are criticized and the corruption of the respectable society is fiercely attacked．
In all the later novels，with the exception of ATale of Two Cities，Dickens presents a criticism of themost fundamental institutions of the Victorian England．His attack now becomesmore urgent and passionate，and this urgency creates novels of great compactness and concentration．Though the later books are in place justas funny as the earlier，there are fewer jokes and the comedy becomes harsher．His language ceases to be free，or rather，carefree．Itbecomes constantly inhibited by the consciousness of the unfunny side of life．In his novels of the late period readers can not find the happy ending anymore．
3．Theme of HisW orks
Dickenswas one of the great literary geniuses of all time and one of themost popular．In his works he exposes and criticizes all the poverty，injustice，hypocrisy and corruptness he sees all around him．As a typicalmiddle-classman he draws strength from hismiddle-class audience．He adores them，delights to please them，and accepts the validity of their judgment．In expressing their aspirations，fears，and prejudices he is simply expressing himself．As a bourgeoiswriter，he can in no way supply any practical solution to the social plights，the best he can do seems to try to obtain an optimism with wishful thinking as in his early novels，or to utter a helpless indignant protestation as in his later ones．He also hopes to call people's attention to the existing problems so as to effect some reform to the social system．
In his novelwriting，Dickens shows all his love and sympathy for those poor，weak，innocent，injured and neglected good people and fights against the cruelty of impersonal institutions of an inhuman society．To him，the greatest literature was literature for the people．According to him，literature“can not be too faithful to the people—cannot too ardently advocate the cause of their advancements，happiness and prosperity．”He shows his readerswhat they themselves thought and felt of the great social problems which confronted them，so by reading his novels，his readers discovered what they thought and felt．Thus people say Dickens，more than any of his contemporaries，was the expression of the conscience of his age，which is the best assessment to him．
4．Characteristics of His Novels
4.1 Characters
As a comprehensive novelist，Dickens is remembered for his outstanding skill in character－portrayal．He is able to portray a character with just a few words or by highlighting or exaggerating some peculiar features of his characters，such as certain peculiarities in appearance，in manner of speaking or in action of habit，etc．，which make his charactersmore lively than life itself．Overall characters in his novels can be grouped into three kinds:those who are innocent，virtuous，persecuted，and helpless;those who are horrible and grotesque and those who are humorous and comical．Dickenswrites bestwhen he writes from child's point of view．According to him，children are instinctive，imaginative，and sensational，who see life as black and white，bigger than reality and they do not look at life with the eye of the wise，the intellectual or instructive observer．His best-depicted characters are those innocent， virtuous，persecuted，helpless child characters such as Oliver Twist，David Copperfield，etc．
Dickens's depiction of the horrible and grotesque characters are also quite impressive．For example Fagin and Bill Sykes in Oliver Twist，Uriah Heep in David Copperfield，Mr．Tulkinghorn in Bleak House．In addition，we could also find those broadly humorous or comic characters like Sam Weller in The Pickwick Papers，Mr．Gamp in David Correrfield，Mr．Bumble in Oliver Twist，etc．These characters are impressive and unforgettable not only because they are true to life，butalso because they are often larger than life．To some extent，they represent human beings，with some particular features exaggerated and highlighted，exposed to the degree of extremity．
4.2 His Humor and Satire
From Dickens's point of view，life itself is amixture of joy and grief．Life is delightful just because it is at once comic and tragic．In order to express the varieties of life Dickens uses humor and satire a lot in his novel creation．As a result，his novels are characterized by amingling of humor and satire．Dickens is a great humorist．Whenever he exaggerates a person's physical traits，or ridicules his temperamental defects he would produce roaring laughter or understanding smile．The same is true whenever he wants to show his light-hearted jocularity or bitter satire．Themost famous representative of this kind is Mr．Micawber in David Copperfield．In the novel Mr．Micawber always expects that something would“turn up”to make his fortune．Together with humor，satire is frequently em-ployed by Dickens to achieve the effect of irony．Dickens is also very good at painting pictures of great pathos．No one can forget the dying scenes of little Nell and little Paul after reading TheOld Curiosity Shop and Dombey and Son．
Themain plot in his novels is often interwoven withmore than one sub-plot so that some interesting minor characters as well as a broader view of lifemay be introduced．There is an abundant variety in Dickens's invention of character and situation．As far as creative force and range of invention are concerned，people have compared Dickens to Shakespeare because both of them have been remembered for a creative world rather than just onemasterpiece．
Ⅱ．Brief Introduction to the Selected Literary Work
David Copperfield
1．Brief Summary of the Novel
The story is told in the first person，through the mouth of its hero，David Copperfield．David，a posthumous child，was born soon after the death of his father．Present at his birth was his aunt，Betsey Trotwood，an eccentric，strong-willed lady，who stalked out in a huff when informed that the baby was a boy，not a girl as she wished．David spent his early yearswith hismother，Clara Copperfield，a gentle but weak woman，and Peggotty，the combination servant and nurse．During David's early childhood，hismothermarries the violent Mr．Murdstone．Under the guise of teaching David and forming his character，he tortures both David and hismother．David bites Mr．Murdstone's hand during one beating．The Murdstone send David away to school，where he is badly treated by the sadistic Creakle．At the same time hemakes two friends．One is the tearful but good-humoured boy and the other is the handsome and brilliant Steerforth，the spoiled son of a foolish and aristocratic mother．
After hismother and her newborn baby died，David is taken out of school by the Murdstone and put to work at Mr．Murdstone's wine-bottling business．He lives in a life of poverty andmisery，and makes the acquaintance of the lively and penniless Mr．Micawber，whomismanages his finances．When Mr．Micawber leaves London to escape his creditors，David decides to search for his father's sister，Miss Betsey Trotwood—his only living relative．He walks a long distance from London to Dover to throw himself on themercy of his great-aunt，Miss Betsey，an eccentric but good-hearted old lady．His aunt adopts him and thereafter he begins a new life．His aunt sends him to a good school，which is run by Dr．Strong．He livesmeantime in the home of Mr．Wickfield，Aunt Betsey's lawyer，and develops a brother－sister relationship with Agnes Wickfield，the sweetmotherless daughter．
At the age of17，David has completed his education and must seek a profession．He firstmeets Steerforth，now a college man，and renews their friendship．David has decided to become a lawyer and is articled to the firm of Spenlow and Jorkins in Doctors'Commons．David introduces Steerforth to Em'ly，who is now a pretty young girl engaged to bemarried to Ham Peggotty．She is attracted to the lordly young gentleman．The handsome villain Steerforth induces little Em'ly to run away with him，under a promise ofmarriage，which he does not intend to fulfill．Then Steerforth has abandoned Em'ly and is shipwrecked and drowned off Yarmouth on his return to England．Ham is drowned in an attempt to save him．Em'ly is found by Mr．Peggotty，and they，together with the Micawbers，emigrate to Australia，where they live happily ever after．
Meanwhile David has fallen in love with Dora Spenlow，the daughter of his employer．When he asks tomarry her，Mr．Spenlow is furious，but soon after，he dies suddenly．He takes a part-time job with Dr．Strong，who is now retired in London．He learns shorthand in order to become a reporter．Encouraged by Traddles，his former school chum，he succeeds．At the age of21，hemarries Dora and begins a second career of a fiction writer．Dora proves a terrible housewife，and little help in his career．David loves her anyway and is generally happy．Soon after she gives birth to a baby who dies，she too falls ill and dies．After that David leaves the country to travel abroad．He spends three years on the Continent，trying to forget the tragedy in his life．He realizes that he loves Agnes，the proper girl for him from the start．Then he has become a successfulwriter of fiction．At last his love for Agnes grows．When David returns，he and Agnes，who has long harbored a secret love for him，getmarried and have several children．David pursues his writing career with increasing commercial success．
Apart from the abovemain plot，there is still a sub-plot of U-riah Heep，Mr．Wickfield's clerk and a less polished，more hypocritical and even more villainous guy．He is a snakelike youngman who often involves himself in matters that are none of his business．Under a pretence of cringing humility，after obtaining complete control over Mr．Wickfield，Heep tries to seize Wickfield's business and force Agnes to marry him．He uses allmeans to achieve this end．Butmisdeeds are exposed by Mr．Micawber and at last Heep is arrested and is seen imprison．
2．Analyses of the M ajor Characters
David
When he was a little boy，he shows his affection to hismother and Peggotty．He is imaginative and sensitive，sufferingmore from psychic anguish than from physical abuse．He ismore horrified by the coldness and mental cruelty of the Murdstones than hurt by the beating he receives．After hismother's death，David is taken from the school and is forced to work in the warehouse．He is in a state of despair because he loses his hope of growing up to be a learned and distinguished man．
David is fortunate enough to have support of several adult—the Micawber，Aunt Betsey and Dr．Strong．The second test of his character comeswhen Aunt Betsey loses her fortune．He must entirely rely on himself．He discovers enormous reserve of strength within which enables him tomaster the difficult art of shorthand reporting．It is his dogged perseverance that makes him become a writer and is the key to his later success．David's complex character allows for contradiction and development over the course of the no-vel．Though David is trusting and kind，he also has moments of cruelty，like the scene in which he intentionally distressesMr．Dick by explaining Miss Betsey's dire situation to him．David also displays great tenderness，as in themoment when he realizes his love for Agnes for the first time．David，especially as a young man in love，can be foolish and romantic．As he grows up，however，he develops amoremature point of view and searches for a lover who will challenge him and help him grow．David fullymatures as an adultwhen he expresses the sentiment that he values Agnes's calm tranquility over all else in his life．In this novel Dickens shows people how David's perception of the world deepens as he comes of age．
Uriah Heep
Uriah in the novel is used as a foil to David and contrasts David's qualities of innocence and compassion with his own corruption．He is a clerk in the law firm of Mr．Wickfield．He is a hypocritical product of a charity school．He hates the“upper classes”and strives by cheating and plotting to make his way in the world．Though Uriah is raised in a cruel environment similar to David's，Uriah's upbringing causes him to become bitter and vengeful rather than honest and hopeful．Dickens's physical description of Uriah marks Uriah as a demonic character．He refers to Uriah's movements as snakelike and gives Uriah red hair and red eyes．Uriah and David not only have opposing characteristics but also operate at cross-purposes．For example，whereas Uriah wishes tomarry Agnes only in order to hurt David，David's marriages are motivated by love．The frequent contrast between Uriah's and David's sentiments emphasizes David's kindness and moral integrity．
With the developmentof the story，Uriah grows in his desire to exercise control over himself and other characters．As Uriah gains more power over Mr．Wickfield，his sense of entitlement grows and he becomesmore and more power-hungry．The final scenes of the novel，in which Uriah praises his jail cell because it helps him know what he should do，show Uriah's need to exert control even when he is a helpless prisoner．But imprisonment does not redeem his evil．To the end，Uriah plots strategies to increase his control．Because he deploys his strategies to selfish purposes thatbring harm to others，he stands out as the novel's greatest villain．Like other bad characters in Dickens's novels，who do not suffer severely，even when Uriah lands in prison，he is still swindling，and still gaining benefits．This testifies to the fact that Dickens has lost his old naive optimism about bourgeois society．
3．Theme of the Novel
3.1 The Suffering of the Weak
In the novel David Copperfield Dickens shows the rule in an industrial society is exploitation．Speaking from his own experience as a child he describes the inhumanity of child labor and debtors'prison．Good characters in the novel are forced to face hardships，disappointment，trial and affliction，and to suffer most cruelly．His characters suffer punishmentat the hands of forces larger than themselves，even though they aremorally good people．Children are deprived of the care of their natural parents and suffer at the hands of their own supposed protectors．For example，David starves and suffers in a wine-bottling factory as a child．As his guardian，Mr．Murdstone can exploit David as factory labor because the boy is too small and dependent on him to disobey．The same is true for the boys at Salem House who have no recourse against the cruel Mr．Creakle．
3.2Wealth and Class
Throughout the novel，Dickens criticizes his society's view of wealth and class as measures of a person's value．Dickens uses Steerforth，who iswealthy，powerful，and noble，to show that these traits aremore likely to corrupt than improve a person's character．Steerforth is treacherous and self-absorbed．On the other hand，Mr．Peggotty and Ham，both poor，are generous，sympathetic characters．Different from many people in his time，who believed that poverty was a symptom of moral degeneracy and that people who were poor deserved to suffer because of inherent deficiencies，Dickens holds that themisery of the poor resulted from society's unfairness rather than their own failings，so he sympathizeswith the poor in the novel．Dickens does not go so far as to suggest that all poor people are absolutely noble and that all rich people are utterly evil．He does not paint a black-and-whitemoral picture but shows that it is not necessarily right to judge a person only by his wealth and class．Readers can judge his characters based on their individual deeds and qualities．
Ⅲ．Latest Critical Commentary
查尔斯·狄更斯是19世纪英国最杰出的批判现实主义作家。他的笔锋深入社会的各个领域，对被压迫、被侮辱、被损害的下层人民寄予深切的同情。狄更斯以其非凡的艺术概括力展现了19世纪英国社会的广阔画卷，他所塑造的为数众多的社会各阶层，特别是下层人民的典型形象，具有巨大的美学价值和认识价值。
《大卫·科波菲尔》是狄更斯的自传体小说，作者在序言中写道:“我在自己的全部作品中最喜欢的是这一本。”小说以孤儿大卫的成长和遭遇为主要线索，狄更斯给我们描述了主人公大卫从一个贫苦的孤儿，成长成为一个自食其力的作家，最后跻身于上流社会的个人奋斗史，可以说在这部小说中，作者狄更斯从不少方面回顾和总结了自己的生活道路，反映了他的人生哲学和远大的理想，是狄更斯对自己奋斗的人生道路的满意回顾，是他自己身世的文学再现。这部小说故事十分吸引人，笔调幽默而略带感伤，同时作者给我们塑造了一大批出色的人物形象。小说通过主人公一生的悲欢离合，多层次地揭示了当时社会的真实面貌，突出地表现了金钱对婚姻、家庭和社会的腐蚀作用。作者从人道主义的思想出发，在揭露金钱的罪恶的同时，揭开了隐藏在维多利亚盛事之后的社会真相。通过研究这部小说可以更深入的了解作者的创作思想以及当时社会概况，近年来学者们对作者狄更斯以及与这部小说相关的研究成果大致可以分为创作思想研究、儿童主题研究和作品的艺术特色研究几个方面。
创作思想研究
狄更斯小说的思想内容极其丰富而深邃，有学者把狄更斯小说的基本思想观念归纳为对资本主义社会制度的批判、对道德的弘扬和对人性的探索三个方面。(陈颖，2007)在社会制度的批判方面重点是那些与现实生活和人民大众密切相关的方面，例如《匹克威克外传》中的党派制度与选举制度;《小杜丽》中的英国政府管理制度的极端的官僚主义，对国家、人民利益的极端冷漠和不负责任。同时他对教育体制的弊端、金钱的罪恶、功利主义、封建贵族、资产阶级慈善事业等等方面都有着深刻的剖析。
狄更斯的道德观在小说中体现为人道主义精神，在他的作品中他希望人间充满善良、正义、人道的道德理想和人生哲学，期望以这样的道德引导人们，改造社会，消除罪恶，并把这看作是自己的责任，他从来没有停止过道德说教。卢那察尔斯基认为狄更斯在作品中体现了英国小资产阶级的痛苦、爱好和仇恨，他设法使觉悟最高和最敏锐的小资产阶级人物的周围与内心所发生的风暴得以缓解，法国文艺批评家丹纳用“行善和爱”来归纳狄更斯的小说，(罗经国，1981)福斯特在《查尔斯·狄更斯传》中指出，由于对穷人的深入了解丰富了他的早期作品，使之充满一种清新的别具一格的情调和简朴自然的哀怨，这些使得他的作品大受欢迎。例如，在《大卫·科波菲尔》这部小说中，作者绝不仅仅是为了掩饰本人童年的苦难而写作的，这部小说表达了小资产阶级对旧的道德基础和家庭基础的赞美，对新的资本主义英国的抗议。国内有学者的研究表明狄更斯对资本主义社会的认识有着逐步深刻的过程。在他前期的作品中，作品的主人公都天生乐善好施，充满仁爱，为书中受苦受难的小人物提供庇护，使他们找到幸福生活，也使一些邪恶的人改邪归正。与此不同在狄更斯后期的作品中，他强调为富不仁者必须经过破产或者其他折磨以接受道德感情教育，才能真正懂得仁爱与谅解。虽然狄更斯前后期创作上有变化，但他始终坚持道德改变社会的思想，试图以善和爱作为疗救社会问题的良方，津津乐道于小人物的温情和感伤的眼泪达到阶级间的谅解与妥协，然而在学者们看来这正体现出作家创作思想的局限性。(陈苏彬，1995)
作为一个资产阶级作家，狄更斯的小说属于资产阶级上升时期的文学，表现出的必然是资产阶级自身发展的要求和愿望，然而在当时的社会历史背景下，狄更斯通过小说中的儿童形象透露出的哲学思想在客观上代表了广大劳动人民的利益。以“道德”和“良知”作为基础在作品中通过以“仁爱”精神反抗资产阶级的贪欲和冷酷，坚信在善与恶的斗争中胜利终将属于前者，处处体现出求得人与人之间的和谐、友爱的人道主义思想的核心。有学者指出狄更斯笔下天真的儿童是人类人道主义思想最真实的体现。(胡磊，2005)他作品中的儿童，一直保持着纯美的童心，借助儿童形象，狄更斯表达了美德总能战胜一切恶行的人道主义思想，体现了作家“以德报怨”、“以善胜恶”的美好理想。狄更斯塑造的许多儿童形象，在善与恶，美与丑的斗争中总能取得决定性的胜利。
也有学者结合狄更斯所处当时维多利亚时代英国社会富足与贫穷共存的社会现实，指出狄更斯本人就是维多利亚时代自助成功的典型。在《大卫·科波菲尔》一书中，他明确告诉读者，大卫的成功源于“守时、守秩序和勤奋等习惯”以及他的“毅力和不断努力”。因此狄更斯是英国中产阶级的代表，他所坚持的也是资产阶级价值观。面对工业化发展带来的物质繁荣和社会转型，狄更斯怀有一种爱恨交织的矛盾情怀。一方面工业化发展为他的文学创作带来了灵感和惊人的效益，但是另一方面工业社会的市场特征也使他充满了困惑。作为一位成熟的小说家和人道主义者，狄更斯对自己所处的社会有着与众不同的理解。早年的狄更斯为工业化发展带来的物质繁荣欢欣鼓舞，但随着自己理解力和社会洞察力的不断加深，他比别人更深刻地洞察到了在维多利亚中期英国社会稳定和繁荣的表象下隐藏的紧张和矛盾。他的人道主义情怀和社会正义感驱使他通过揭露和批判其中的阴暗面和弊端来维护中产阶级价值观和现存的社会制度。鉴于此学者们认为，他的批判是一种建设性批判，是为社会的进步和完善出谋划策，而不是想批垮现存的社会制度。他希望自己的批判能有助于使当时的社会摆脱自身所面临的困境和弊端，并进而使人们生活得更加幸福。(严幸智，2004)
狄更斯在作品中除了对资本主义社会制度进行批判，对人道主义道德观念进行弘扬之外，对人性的关注与探索也是狄更斯小说的基本思想内容之一。在学者陈颖(2007)看来，宏观上狄更斯对人性的反映与探索，具有整体性和系统性的特点。微观上狄更斯的探索涉及人性的各个方面，每一个角落。作者善于综合人性的各种表现，将它条分缕析，再用具体的形象表现出来。他笔下的人物，常常显示出人性某一方面的内容，或者概括了人性的某一特点。在探索人性方面，《大卫·科波菲尔》是狄更斯小说中十分重要的一部。这部小说就表现一个父母双亡的孤儿如何在挫折和教训中逐渐成熟，走上正确的人生道路的过程，并以此表现了健全人性的形成与发展。大卫成年之后，受到追逐名誉、地位、财产观念的影响，开始迷上一大群无甚价值的姑娘。接着，又与虽然天真活泼、却又幼稚无知的朵拉结婚。直到最后，才充分认识到与他青梅竹马的、贤淑贞慧的爱妮丝的真正价值，两人结为终身伴侣。这其中的曲折，既非某种社会罪恶，亦非谁的道德缺陷造成，而是由于大卫本人的幼稚、缺乏辨别能力，正是通过这些曲折，大卫才逐渐成熟起来，找到正确的生活之路。小说中的马车夫巴奇斯是个好人，但有点财迷，他把所有的财产都放在小箱子里，随时带在身边，临死前还要把箱子放在床头，不停地解释说里面装的都是些“破衣烂衫”。作者并不注意巴奇斯的财迷所包含的阶级、经济等方面的内容，只是侧重描写其财迷的种种具体表现，这就使巴奇斯的财迷体现出人性的一般弱点。
儿童主题研究
狄更斯的童年，前期是欢乐美好的，但在后期竟成了辛酸屈辱，青年时曾失恋，中年时又同妻子分手，这些是能让我们了解到的命运对他的主要打击，狄更斯儿童时代不堪回首的苦痛经历，既使他心头笼罩了一层挥之不去的阴影，又使他从那时起便在心中架起了一座称量“善”与“恶”的道德天平，狄更斯的生活经历及生命体验(特别是儿童、青少年时期的苦难生活)对他塑造儿童形象和他的人道主义思想的形成、发展有很深的影响。不难看出他塑造的许多儿童形象都有他童年的影子。
狄更斯以幽默、夸张的手法再现了一个个栩栩如生的儿童形象:他以对悲伤情景的描绘向读者展示了由于社会、学校、家庭的不健康教育，所扭曲的肉体和精神都受了创伤的孩子们。他以精湛的艺术手法，敏锐的洞察力，并结合自己童年时期感情上受到的不公正的对待，以及做记者时所观察到的社会的方方面面，敏锐地提出了一些社会政治问题，特别是儿童教育问题。在学者们的研究中他们把狄更斯关于儿童教育的问题大致分为社会对儿童的教育、学校对儿童的教育和家庭对儿童的教育三大类。(陈清兰，2002)在《雾都孤儿》中暴露了当时的慈善机构是如何虐待贫儿以及伦敦贼窝及黑社会是怎样把一个个本性善良，甚至机智可爱的儿童引向歧途的。这里的儿童精神和肉体都倍受摧残和扭曲，原因之一是他们缺乏社会应该给予的爱护和教育。在《大卫·科波菲尔》中作者反映了自己童年在私立学校里接受旧式教育时受尽打骂的真实情况。在学校里校长侮辱、体罚学生，把聪明的孩子也打成傻子，给孩子的心灵造成深深的伤害。在此狄更斯批判了学校教育给孩子们带来的伤害。在《尼古拉斯·尼克尔贝》这部小说中描写了教师们崇拜财富，欺凌穷人的孩子，狂热地甚至丧心病狂地追逐暴利，参加黑市投机生意，把学生当作能轻易牟取暴利的源泉的恐怖现象，以及肉体和精神都受到创伤的孩子的形象，揭露了统治着贫民学校的制度，并主张对其改革。家庭教育问题大致可以分为无家型和富有型。前者中儿童形象以孤儿居多，他们或无家可归流落街头，或生活在贫民院饱受饥饿与折磨，或被卖作童工遭受肉体和精神的摧残，还有些略为幸运的则被亲戚收养等等，这些儿童在狄更斯的笔下是那么孤苦伶仃，无依无靠。后者出生在富贵家庭，他们无需流落街头，为自己饥饿的肚皮做童工，但他们同样是不幸的，他们无法拥有无数金钱都换不来的真正的人类情感，他们同样是社会不公正的牺牲品。狄更斯通过这两类儿童形象的刻画向社会呼吁:给孩子一个温暖、人性的家，孩子需要完整、健康的家庭教育。
狄更斯通过塑造儿童形象，强烈谴责了19世纪英国社会摧残人性的教育制度和以金钱、私利编织成的畸形家庭关系。狄更斯在小说中很注重反映儿童的教育培养问题，他认为在儿童身上才能培养起的那些新的情感中，具有特殊意义的是道德感和美感。在学者们看来狄更斯认为正确合理的教育和温馨互爱的家庭最能充分地发挥“情感教育”和“道德感化”的作用，最有利于“情感教育”和“道德感化”的实施。儿童问题归根到底就是家庭问题，也就是人性正确而合理的教育问题。(伊瓦肖娃，1983)狄更斯在批判金钱的罪恶时，常以“情感教育”和“道德感化”来对抗金钱的腐蚀。另外，他也把惩恶扬善的希望更多地寄托于儿童本身的“情感教育”和“道德感化”。
狄更斯笔下的儿童形象，集中体现了作家所认为的人类的精神追求和社会生活应当是“乐观向上，欢愉温和”的人道主义思想。学者们认为狄更斯在作品中表达的“乐观主义”信息是:要充满信心，永远乐观，世界属于那些满怀信心，愉快乐观地去征服它的人。(安德列，1984)在《大卫·科波菲尔》中，大卫从出生到获得成功和幸福的这一段时光，是充满艰辛和痛苦的，但他从稍懂人世起便有坚定的信念，认为只要自己尽力去做，世上美好的一切就会光顾自己。另外，在他少年时期，他又受到米考伯和贝特西姨婆的乐观精神的感染，因此他更加积极进取，乐观向上，最终得到了完美的结局。狄更斯认为人类的生活应在欢愉温和、友爱轻松之中度过。人们在一起，应轻松地做事，而且应在一种舒适的氛围之中，互相开玩笑，互相微笑，这对于任何阶级都适用。狄更斯塑造的儿童形象正好体现了人世间轻松愉快，互相信任的关系。
有学者注意到狄更斯在创作这些生动感人的儿童形象时，自觉不自觉地运用儿童的视角去观察生活或表现理想，学者们认为狄更斯的作品具有浓重的理想色彩，在叙述和描写中运用了大量的儿童文学表现手法，具有明朗的浪漫主义风格，并指出这一现象和狄更斯童年的经历分不开，也和英国维多利亚时代的政治经济形式密切相关。(齐晓燕，2007)实际上用这种视角狄更斯一方面是在表现自己童年生活的体验，表达了自己童年对幸福的渴望和对充满爱的社会的深刻向往。在弗洛伊德看来艺术像白日梦一样，是一种“替代性的满足”，“在想象中解决困难或满足愿望从而获得某种快乐”。(特里林，1994)因此狄更斯对孩子的热爱和描画是出于内心的需求，这是他个体生命的创作本能，是他表达自我的最佳形式。另一方面狄更斯创作时采用的理想化的儿童视角表现了英国绅士的社会理想，他热情希望社会充满爱，他在作品中描绘了一个充满了爱的完美世界，为了达到这个境界，每个人都要忍受黑暗并尽自己所能奉献爱。
作品的艺术特色研究
人物形象塑造:
狄更斯的文学创作笔锋深入社会的各个领域，对被压迫、被侮辱、被损害的下层人民寄予深切的同情，他笔下的人物，大部分都是人们在生活中常见的普通人。学者们认为他善于运用素描的手法，抓住人物特征，通过人物的动作、姿态和语言，来揭示人物的内心世界，将一个个性格分明、形象丰满、充满活力、栩栩如生的人物展现在读者的面前，给读者留下深刻的印象。(周蒲芳，2006)具体而言也就是狄更斯使用简单话语勾勒出人物的艺术形象、用简短对话展现人物的性格和内心世界以及运用人物所属的那个社会阶层的朴素语言表达自己朴素的感情。也有学者认为虽然狄更斯把平凡的世界渲染得怪诞无比，把谦卑的市民世界描绘得动人无比，但是最终过分市民化的眼光束缚了他创作真正悲剧的天才。(李宇容，2005)
狄更斯塑造人物出色，他的作品是典型的人物中心小说，而非情节中心小说。狄更斯为读者塑造了在伦敦中行走、哭泣、欢笑的人物。T·S·艾略特也认为狄更斯的人物逼真，因为他们独一无二。有学者指出狄更斯的人物绝不近似生活，许多评论家甚至把他的人物视作“神话人物”、“童话人物”。(李宇容，2005)狄更斯笔下的神话人物的特征是抽象观念的形象载体，同时往往肩负道德说教的功能。他们缺乏普遍的人性以及成长变化，往往只折射或代表一种性格特征，要么是平庸的好人，要么是古怪的怪物。人物的模式化、类型化，在狄更斯的作品中是那么地明显“小母亲”、“老少女”、“福星”、“悔过者”、“孤儿”、“骗子”、“穷律师”、“坏教师”等，在不同的作品里，他们以不同的说话方式和体态动作出场，重复着各自独有的言语与情境——不断地重复在产生了诗意的同时又有童话的效果——然而你又能一眼认出背后的本质。李宇容(2005)在研究中指出狄更斯的作品中口头文学、戏剧艺术和通俗文学的影响显而易见的。在狄更斯的长篇小说尤其是早期的《匹克威克外传》、《孤星血泪》、《尼古拉斯·尼克尔贝》、《老古玩店》等作品中，流浪汉小说的叙事方法得到充分的运用，而故事性是狄更斯从流浪汉小说中汲取的最重要的养分。学者们认为在狄更斯看来他的小说的各个部分比小说的整体要伟大的多。(罗经国，1981)
在描写人物性格时，狄更斯不仅勾画出人物的外形，诸如仪表、穿着、言谈和举止，而且更注重探索人物的内心世界。他笔下的每一个人物都具有鲜明的个性，独特的语言风格、生活习惯和嗜好，为读者塑造了有血有肉的人物形象，读者仿佛身临其境，如见其人，如闻其声。例如《大卫·科波菲尔》中，对米考伯先生的描写。小说中他总是破产，但却非常乐观，言谈滑稽幽默，常爱用辞藻堆砌的句子，有爱调五味酒的习惯。这样的人物刻画给我们留下了生动难忘的印象，他们一个个都是资本主义社会中活生生的人物。这些人物正是恩格斯所推崇的文学上的人物性格，都是用鲜明的个性描写手法刻画出来的，每个人是典型，但同时又是一定的单个人。
狄更斯作品中无处不在的幽默，令读者在领略了社会的黑暗现实之后，愤懑之余又能忍不住发出一笑，于幽默中领略书中蕴含的哲理，让人陡然警醒。学者高又谦(2006)指出狄更斯在小说《大卫·科波菲尔》中从幽默和讽刺两方面入手塑造不同的人物形象。具体而言就是作者用辛辣的语言对反面人物的恶行进行了揭露与讽刺。同时他还以英国式的幽默，褒扬与赞美了社会中，生活在严酷的社会现实之下，仍未泯灭善良、淳朴天性的“好人”，用轻松诙谐的笔调描绘了他们的喜怒哀乐，用幽默对他们悲哀的身世表示深切的同情，同时也对他们的麻木和无知给予了善意的批评。在塑造反面人物时，为了揭露某些英国中产阶级卑鄙贪婪、阴险狡诈的真面目，作者使他们在外形、语言和性格上各具特色，并对他们进行了生动形象的讽刺。
对比是狄更斯擅长运用的另一艺术手法。尤其是在人物形象的塑造上，几乎在他每一部小说中狄更斯都虚构出一些理想的利他主义者，来与资产阶级利己主义的代表相对照，借助这样的对比手法和生动的词语来烘托人物的性格特征，强调人物、现象之间的区别，揭露资本主义社会虚伪、丑恶的本质，从而相互烘托，突出其典型性。
小说的故事性:
有学者指出狄更斯的大部分小说都遵循流浪—奋斗—成功这一模式。这种情节组合构成了狄更斯小说最基本的叙述模式，情节的紧张性和曲折性也构成狄更斯小说的基本风格。(张国清，2001)小说的故事通常由人与人、人与社会的外部冲突构成。狄更斯在创作中对故事性的追求实际上是对人与外部生活描述的注重，他的小说追求一种社会批判与道德教化的效果与作用，从而在作品中揭示了政治与社会真理，他以感人至深的故事抓住读者的情感，并在他的故事框架中嵌入了真实的社会和人生，从而真实广泛的反映了当时的社会现实，他的作品具有深刻的社会批判意义。
小说的语言:
他的语言明快流畅，娓娓动听，回旋不绝。不同人物间的对话真切自然，符合人物的身份、教养和性格。讽刺辛辣而又幽默。抒情遣怀旖旎哀婉，在对话中运用方言土语更增添作品的质朴亲切之感。景物描写丰富多变，一会儿气势磅礴雄伟，一会儿却恬静平和。在狄更斯的作品中，我们随处可以感受到浓郁的积极浪漫主义的气息。
写作技巧:
夸张和重复的运用是狄更斯用来达到讽刺的艺术效果，加强作品的感染力的有效方法。除此之外大胆的比喻、拟人法以及熟练运用英语中具有双关含义的词汇进行辛辣的讽刺，是狄更斯的又一艺术表现手法。在创作时，狄更斯还善于把自然景象和现实环境变成具体、生动的意象与人物的感情、心理及其内心世界融为一体，使读者更直接、更形象地体验和感悟人物的内心世界。在狄更斯笔下，万物仿佛都有了灵性，与主人公的感情、气质相契合。例如《大卫·科波菲尔》中对于“风暴”的描述，不仅大卫的心情随着风暴的起伏而起伏，就是读者的心弦也随之激动、震颤。这样的情景描写的确增添了故事的真实性，加强了它的艺术感染力。为此，狄更斯被英国文学史专家们誉为“语言风景画大师”。
参考文献
［1］安德列·莫洛亚［法］，狄更斯评传［M］．朱延生译．山西人民出版社，1984．
［2］陈苏彬，从《大卫·科波菲尔》看狄更斯的创作思想［J］．山西师大学报(社会科学版)，1995(3):54－55
［3］陈颖，现实的批判、道德的弘扬、人性的探索——浅析狄更斯小说的思想观念［J］．学术交流，2007(1):178－180
［4］陈清兰，狄更斯笔下的儿童教育问题［J］．郴州师范高等专科学校学报，2002(6):62－63
［5］高又谦，温厚的幽默与辛辣的讽刺——再读《大卫·科波菲尔》［J］．南京工业大学学报(社会科学版)，2006(1):61－64
［6］胡磊，从狄更斯笔下的儿童形象看其人道主义思想［J］．楚雄师范学院学报，2005(5):13－16
［7］莱·特里林［美］，弗洛伊德与文学［M］．胡亚敏，译．华夏出版社，1994．
［8］李宇容，解读狄更斯小说人物创造的特点［J］．丽水学院学报，2005(1):57－60
［9］罗经国，狄更斯评论集［C］．上海译文出版社，1981．
［10］齐晓燕，论狄更斯小说的儿童视角［J］．河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)，2007(5):201－03
［11］伊瓦肖娃［苏］，狄更斯评传［M］．蔡文显、廖世健、李筱菊译．广东人民出版社，1983．
［12］严幸智，狄更斯中产阶级价值观论析［J］．西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版)，2004(2):120－125
［13］周蒲芳，论《大卫·科波菲尔》中的人物素描艺术［J］．郑州航空工业管理学院学报(社会科学版)，2006(4):22－24
［14］张国清，浅析狄更斯小说的故事性［J］．沧州师范专科学校学报，2001(1):19－20