8.2 Writing in Science

Science is widely recognized as a discipline that involves the empirical work of observing, manipulating, and experimenting with the material world; at the same time, it is also a form of discourse involving argument (Kuhn, 2010; Osborne, 2010). Scientists use language and other semiotic resources (e.g., graphs, charts, pictures, diagrams, and sonograms) to record, describe, classify, explain, model, and theorize the natural phenomena. They use evidence gathered from their reading, observation, and experiment to make their case for new ideas or alternative interpretations. These ideas or interpretations are in turn subjected to scrutiny and critique by the scientific community and the public. A study by Yore, Hand, and Florence (2004) found that scientists engage in many different types of writing for a variety of purposes in their daily work. They write to keep records of observations and experiments to ensure the accuracy and reliability of their scientific activities and results; they write research articles, scientific reports, monographs, essays, reviews, and emails to interact with other scientists, sharing opinions, debating over scientific issues, or defending their claims; they write books and blogs for the public to disseminate scientific knowledge to a broader audience. It is through these and other literate practices that scientists display their professional competence, contribute to scientific advancements, and serve the public good (Yore, Bisanz & Hand, 2003). In short, writing is not just a tool for storing and transmitting science, but it is also a constitutive part of science (Norris & Phillips, 2003).

Given the centrality of writing to science, it is not surprising that the science education community has long embraced the view that writing should be an integral part of the science curriculum. In fact, writing is seen as not only an indispensable tool for doing science but also a powerful vehicle for learning science (Yore, 2004). Key science and engineering practices — such as asking questions and defining problems; developing and using models; planning and carrying out investigations; analyzing and interpreting data; using mathematics and computational thinking; constructing explanation and designing solution; engaging in argument from evidence; and obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information (National Research Council, 2012) — are all language intensive. They require students to write (along with other activities such as speaking, listening, reading, and viewing) as they develop models, present ideas, offer explanations, and engage in evidence-based reasoning and argumentation. Thus, if students are to develop as scientifically literate individuals, they must simultaneously develop facility in writing.(https://www.daowen.com)

Key science genres that students are expected to write include procedural recounts, research articles, demonstrations, field studies, reports, explanations, and expositions (Christie & Derewianka, 2008). Each of these genres has a distinct schematic structure and calls for a particular constellation and calibration of lexical and grammatical choices. Many students, both native and non-native speakers of English, face challenges in instantiating these genres. They have trouble composing both short-answer responses (1-3 sentences) and longer proses (essays). Problems can exist at the levels of word (e.g., imprecise vocabulary, unclear pronoun reference), sentence (e.g., fragmented sentences, tense inconsistency, limited resources for construing causality, a focus on doing instead of being), and discourse (e.g., lack of cohesion, flow, focus, or organization). For example, Seah, Clark, and Hart (2011) found that students used scientific terms and pronouns in ambiguous ways and were unable to clearly and effectively communicate cause-effect relations in their explanations. Schleppegrell (1998, 2004) reported that students demonstrated a lack of familiarity with science genres, struggled with producing register features typical of science genres, had trouble with basic grammar such as subject-verb agreement and tense marking, and frequently provided excessive interpersonal context through choice of tense, point of view, and choice of finite verbs. Taken together, extant research suggests that science writing is a linguistically and cognitively demanding task and that many students (especially English language learners) lack the language resources for making scientific meaning in genre-specific and register-appropriate ways.