资料整理与分析
(1)资料整理。
资料整理是分析的前提,始于数据收集阶段;数据分析建立在良好的资料整理基础之上。资料整理包括转录(transcribe)和沉浸(immerse)。转录,即将访谈录音(包括语言、语气词、音调、沉默、哭笑等)、田野笔记等转为文本的过程。沉浸,即为深入资料中,研究者通过对访谈录音及转录文本反复听及阅读(listening and relistening,reading and re-reading),与资料“互动”,对资料产生整体把握(a holistic view)和熟悉(be familiar with the data),将自己“沉浸”在资料中(be immersed in the data)。部分研究(描述现象学)还需要研究者在此过程摒弃自己对研究现象既有认识和理解(preunderstanding),通常通过使用括号注解(bracketing)的方法,采用写备忘录(memo)或日记(dairy)的形式来实现。
在这一部分,需要说明参与资料整理和分析的人员以及涉及的具体步骤。如示例4-14所示,作者首先说明数据分析人员:主要研究者(primary investigator)和其他不直接参与访谈的合作者(coresearchers,not directly connected to the interview process)。主要研究者将录音和田野笔记进行整理,转录为22份“文本(transcripts)”,并分析了全部文本;其他研究者分为两组,每组独立分析一半的文本。研究小组就分析结果进行比较、讨论并最终达成一致意见。又如示例4-15所示,该研究中,作者通过反复阅读转录文本对所获资料有所熟悉。
示例4-14 资料整理和分析
All the interview transcripts and the field notes were analyzed by the primary investigator.The co-researchers,not directly connected to the interview process,independently analyzed half of the transcripts.The 22 interview transcripts were randomly divided into two groups(i.e.,even and odd)and each group included five interviews with cardiac rehabilitation participants and six with community participants.Findings were compared and discussed by the research team during organized meetings until consensus was reached.
示例4-15 沉浸在资料中
The transcripts were read and re-read to obtain a global view and to familiarise the reader with the data.
(2)资料分析。
质性研究的资料分析与资料收集同步进行,当资料收集开始时,资料分析也随之开展。资料分析结果决定是否需要继续收集资料。资料分析是质性研究中最具挑战的环节,其目的是既要保存每个访谈对象个体生活经验的独特性,又能对研究中的现象产生了解。
质性研究的数据分析方法大致可分为两类:一类来源或遵循固定的理论或认知论立场(theoretical or epistemological position)或在该理论或认知论框架下的具体方法(manifestations of the method),例如现象学中的诠释现象学分析(interpretative phenomenological analysis)、Giorgi的现象学分析方法和Colaizzi的资料分析方法,扎根理论中Glaser和Strauss的三级编码分析,以及民族志分析(ethnographic accounts)、揭露分析(disclosure analysis)和叙事分析(narrative analysis)。另一类资料分析方法相对独立于具体的理论和认知论,并且可以广泛应用于不同的质性研究中;这一类分析方法包括内容分析法(content analysis)和主题分析法(thematic analysis),以下就这两种方法进一步说明。
1)内容分析法(content analysis)。(https://www.daowen.com)
内容分析法具有系统性(systematic)、客观性(objective)和定量性(quantitative)的特点。内容分析法将收集的资料整理、分类、抽象、提炼后用文字或图表表达意义,本质上是一种对文本“去粗存精”的过程(coding scheme),尤其适用于应用Nvivo软件进行数据分析。
如示例4-16所示,作者在资料分析部分的第二段陈述了内容分析法的步骤包括4位研究者独立进行系统编码(systematic coding)、形成初始编码树(initial coding tree)、完善编码树(modified during the analysis process)和使用到的技术包括比较与对比(comparing and contrasting)。第三段描述了具体的翻译与抽象化过程,包括确定模式与主题(identifying patterns and meanings of the themes)及分析描述核心类别、类别及主题。最后,作者还详细描述了确保信息饱和(saturation)的举措。
示例4-16 内容分析法
A content analysis method was used,starting with systematic coding by four independent researchers.The initial coding tree was modified during the analysis process.By comparing and contrasting similar categories across all interviews,emerging themes were inductively derived from the raw data.Finally,categories and sub-categories were organized based on the raw data and theoretical framework(Tong et al.,2007).The interpretation and abstraction process included identifying patterns and meanings of the themes.The relationships between the core category,main categories,and subcategories were identified and described.Theoretical saturation was achieved when no new insights were identified from the data.Saturation was reached after eight interviews with cardiac rehabilitation participants and ten interviews with community participants.Four more interviews(two in each group)were conducted to ensure saturation.Finally,the findings were discussed and compared to existing literature(Graneheim et al.,2017).
2)主题分析法(thematic analysis)。
主题分析法被(潜在地)认为是现实(realist)或经验性(experiential)的分析方法,具有灵活性(flexible)与实用性(useful)的特点。由于主题分析非常灵活,常常是很多其他数据分析方法的第一步,所以很多学者并没有把主题分析列为一个单独的分析方法。直到2006年,Braun和Clarke给了主题分析清晰的定义与步骤,主题分析才开始慢慢地在研究方法中有了独立的地位。Braun和Clarke认为“主题(theme)”代表的是数据中出现的元素(essence),而“主题分析(thematic analysis)”就是将这些主题系统再现的过程。Braun和Clarke的主题分析法分为6个步骤。
下面将以示例4-17为例,进行介绍。此研究的分析问题(analytic question)为“What experiences,perception/s drive the process of nurses'implicit rationing of their care?”,围绕这个问题,研究者通过以下步骤来对资料进行分析:①熟悉数据(familiarization with the data):对文本反复阅读(reading and rereading the transcripts)。②产生初始编码(initial coding phase):研究者们分别阅读文本并对模式和主题进行编码(coding for patterns and themes),标记相关、有意义的段落(labeling paragraphs that contained information regarding points discussed)。③寻找共同主题(themes):研究者们再次分析初始编码,并将编码分类,形成主题,就主题的含义及涌现的模式进行讨论并达成一致意见(the two analyzed the initial codes together,sorted them into potential themes and discussed their meanings and emerging patterns with the aim of reaching a shared understanding/agreement)。④检查主题:将所有提取的编码信息归入相应主题和思维导图(all relevant coded data extracts were collated within the identified themes and mind-maps),检查所确定主题的内部同质性(internal homogeneity)和外部异质性(external heterogeneity),在必要时对提取的数据进行再次编码(re-coding)。⑤定义主题(refined and defined the themes):研究者通过确认主题的个体性和集体性本质(identifying their individual and collective essence),进一步完善和定义这些主题。⑥形成报告:经过以上分析步骤,以及对个体访谈和各个访谈间的归纳性分析,最终形成概念性主题(Conceptual themes were derived inductively from analysis within and between individual interviews)。在数据分析中,作者还应用了MAXQDA软件辅助分析。
示例4-17 主题分析法
A thematic analysis approach was used,following the phases described by Braun and Clarke(Braun and Clarke,2006).As thematic analysis is very flexible and facilitates distinguishing,identifying,and interpreting themes,i.e.,significant patterns in the data,we considered it appropriate for use with interpretive descriptive methodology.Overall,the thematic analysis was guided by one analytic question:What experiences,perception/s drive the process of nurses'implicit rationing of their care?After reading and re-reading the transcripts(familiarization with the data),the initial coding phase started with the first and last authors(Blinded)reading the transcripts separately and coding for patterns and themes,labeling paragraphs that contained information regarding points discussed.In the next phase,the two analyzed the initial codes together,sorted them into potential themes and discussed their meanings and emerging patterns with the aim of reaching a shared understanding/agreement.
For the next step,all relevant coded data extracts were collated within the identified themes and mind-maps used to meaningfully organize any emerging themes.The two authors reviewed the identified themes for internal homogeneity(i.e.,meaningful cohesion of codes)and external heterogeneity(i.e.,clear distinctions between themes),re-coding the data extracts as necessary.They further refined and defined the themes by identifying their individual and collective essence(Braun and Clarke,2006).Conceptual themes were derived inductively from analysis within and between individual interviews(Hunt,2009;Thorne,2008;Thorne et al.,2004).We used MAXQDA 2018(VERBI Software,2017)for data analysis.
抛开不同的学派与方法,质性研究的资料分析采用归纳法(inductive),以明确主题和主题间的关系为目标,通过阅读原材料(reading)、编码(coding)、分类(categorizing)、浓缩(condensing)、提炼主题(theme)和(或)本质(essence)来解释现象的实质和意义。形成的主题具有准确性、独立性、互斥性和穷尽性。