4.2.3 Keywords Analysis
Keywords refer to the words that are used frequently to indicate the them e，style and syntactic features in texts.Take TETT as observed corpus and OETT as reference corpus，keywords can be extracted by WordSmith Tools.Keyness which is calculated in the way of loglikelihood serves as a kind of relevance to supplem ent frequency and percentage calculation（P—probability default value is set less than 0.001 which has a highly significant statisticalmeaning）.The positive keyness means words occur more often than expected in TETT；the negative keynessmeans words occurm ore often in OETT.
Table 4.7 Keyness in Cultural Tourism Texts（TETT-OETT）
Table 4.8 Keyness in Natural Tourism Texts（TETT-OETT）
（To be continued）
Obviously，the keynesses of dynasty and culture are themost prominent keywords in TETT.The overuse of dynasty and culture illustrates that TETT emphasizes the background information.As dynasty is usually used to indicate time，the differentexpressions of time in OETT and TETT deserve a deep analysis.Collocation，colligation and semantic preference of time expression will be taken into consideration.Collocation observes the relationship between node words and other lexical items；colligation studies the relationship between a node word and a grammatical category.Stubbs defined the semantic preference as“the relation，not between individual words，but between a lemma or word-form and a set of semantically related words”（Stubbs2001：65）.He further explained that an itemshows the semantic preference when it co-occurswith“a class of words which share some semantic feature”（Stubbs 2001：88）.The corpus-driven（bottom-up）approach will be used to analyze the semantic features of the keywords extracted by the corpus-based（up-down）approach.
4.2.3.1 Expressions of Tim e
Dynasty occurs 151 times in TETT.However，it only appears once in OETT.The sharp contrast suggests OETT and TETT are quite different in the expressions of time.Collocations and colligations are observed to analyze the context of dynasty.Usually dynasty appears at the end of the phrase to express time，so the window span in Antconc is set from 4L to 0（that is，observe the left four words of dynasty）.The result of words frequency is as follow s：126 hits of the，46 hits of of，29 hits of in，22 hits of from，16 hits of during，7 hits of early，5 hits of late.It can be inferred the pattern in／from／during the*dynasty or in the early／late of*dynasty often occur.
Exam ple 1：
（1）In each dynasty after the building of the Great Wall，many more storieswere created and spread.（TETT）
（2）The history of Buddhism at Jiuhua Mountain can be divided into five periods:founded in themiddle of the Tang Dynasty；decayed from the late Tang Dynasty to the Five Dynasties；slow ly developed in the Song and Yuan Dynasties；and greatly devel oped in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.（TETT）
In OETT，however，century occursmore（55 times in OETT and 38 times in TETT）.Set the window span from 4L to 0 to observe collocation and colligation，we can find there are 51 hits of th，49 hits of the，24 hits of of，12 hits of in，11 hits of early，4 hits of turn，and 4 hits of end.Therefore，the pattern in the early／end of＋ordinal number＋century，around the turn of＋ordinal number＋century often occur in OETT.
Exam ple 2：
（1）Chumash Indians lived on the Channel Islands until the early 19 th century.（OETT ）
（2）The British removed the wall around the turn of the 18 th century.（OETT）
In TETT，century is collocated with 30 hits of the，25 hits of th，12 hits of in，11 hits of of，4 hits of early.Themost frequently used pattern is in the＋ordinal number＋century withoutmodified words before the ordinal number.
Exam ple 3：
It was first built in the 7th century B.C.when China was still divided into many small states.（TETT）
In short，TETT often utilizes dynasty to express time in TETT，which is effected by the original Chinese texts.On the use of century，TETT shows the lower frequency and has less various patterns to express time than OETT.
Undoubtedly，besides the words dynasty and century，the prepositions in and during occur frequently to express time.The semantic preference deserves to give an insight to.
The results of collocation of in for time expression in OETT are as follow s：in＋cardinal number 203 hits，year 15 hits，and century 11 hits（Since in mostly appears at the head of a phrase，the window span in Antconc is set from 0 to 4R.The setting of during is the same as in.）The outcome in OETT is that together with during，summer occurs 11 times，month 7 times，season 6 times，winter 3 times，year 2 times.
Exam ple 4：
（1）The movie South Pacific released in_ 1960 featured this mountain as a forbidden but exotic island called Bali Hai.（OETT）
（2）In early years，visitors took a week going around the loop—still a good idea.（OETT）
（3）The Aegean Sea winds usually appear during the warmseason from May to September.（OETT）
（4）These winds mostly blow during_ the_ da__y，from 8 in themorning to 8 in the evening，and are at their strongest.（OETT）
It is remarkable that in is used with the lexicalwords of a long time（eg.year，century）but during is used with the lexical words of relatively short time（eg.season，day）.The concordance evidence of in and during reveals different semantic prosody.In refers to a point in the entire time axis，but during has an internalmeaning of process.That is why during is frequently used with the pattern from...to...to indicate the time span.
The collocation of in for tem poral expression in TETT is counted as follow s：in＋cardinal number 106 hits，dynasty 29 hits，year 16 hits，century 14 hits.The collocation of during is as follow s：dynasty 16 hits，year 3 hits，century 2 hits.
Exam ple 5：
（1）On the left side，it is Nengren Tem ple firstly constructed in the Qing Dynasty.（TETT）
（2）In the seventeenth century under the reign of the Fifth Dalai Lama，Potala was rebuilt.（TETT）
（3）Buddhism was introduced to themountain during_ the_ Ji_n_Dynasty.（TETT）
（4）During the 20 th century，Peiwas responsible for the design of some of the world'smostmagnificent buildings.（TETT）
The above sentences show both in and during are used together with the words of a long time（eg.century，dynasty）in TETT.The semantic preference is not so obvious as OETT.In TETT，during is frequently used with dynasty.This provesmany landscapes and cultural elements are related with dynasty and sovereign.Different dynasties have different traditions and preferences；a variety of culture derives from the dynastic changes.There is no doubt that culture comes to be a keyword in TETT.
4.2.3.2 Reference Tracking
W hen a person or something ismentioned again，reference is used to coordinate with antecedent.It is also called anaphora.Chen Ping（1987）classified anaphora into three categories：zero anaphora，pronominal anaphora and nominal anaphora.
Table 4.8 shows that the pronominal anaphora he，his，and him are more frequently used in TETT.Li＆Thom pson（1979）pointed out Chinese preferred zero anaphora.The third person pronouns are overused in TETT because they are reverted in the process of translation.This proves the translation hypothesis of explicitation.
Exam ple 6：
（1）The 5.5 hectares mausoleumincludes three giant yurt halls which house coffins of the Khan，his[1]wife，his②son and his③generals.（TETT）
（2）There is a story ofWang Xizhi，it says that when he④was a child he⑤blackened all the water of a pond in front of his⑥house by washing his⑦w riting im plements every day after practice.（TETT）
（3）Nelson was fatally wounded during that famous battle off the Spanish coast.His⑧body was taken back to London and buried in the St.Paul's Cathedral.（OETT）
（4）The building was finally com pleted in 1826 by Charles Bulfinch，a Boston architect known for his⑨design of the Massachusetts State House.（OETT）
Some of the third person pronouns are customarily unexpected to happen in the above example.Li Rong，Pim Mak＆Ted Sanders（2010）①have carried out an experiment about zero vs.pronominal anaphor.They observed people's eye-tracking to test the readers'sensitivity towards anaphors.They pointed out“the pronoun causes a slow down when zero is expected on the basis of the context and a speedup when zero is not expected”.In Sentence（1），his is necessary to denote Khan while his and his are dispensable as the reader has got themeaning（Khan'swife，son and generals）.In Sentence（2），he and he（when he was a child he...）are necessary while his and his are dispensable.It is self-evident Wang Xizhi washed his own writing im plements in the pond of his house.Here，his is unnecessary.The unexpected pronouns waste readers'time and effort，make texts prolix and cause a delay of the following nouns or verbs.
What ismore，he is used to indicate the third person.Usually the denoted person is absent or exists in the story.Too many third person pronouns lead to a deviation from the core theme.
We is frequently used in TETT.This illustrates the translator（author）m akes effort to shorten distance with readers.However，it is a“speaker-centered”way.The author／speaker takes himself or herself as the host.Thismay cause im perceptible psychological superiority of the author and the inferiority of readers.(https://www.daowen.com)
OETT performs better on this point.Visitors and guests（Table 4.7＆Table 4.8）are used when it is necessary to introduce objectively.You is used to stress communication with readers.In this way，the physical distance between authors and readers are shortened.It seems like they are discussing about the tourist attractions.What is most im portant，it illustrates a“reader-centered”perspective.
4.2.3.3 Connection
According to Table 4.7，the connective and ismore frequently used in TETT.
Exam ple 7：
（1）They wear helmets and①armor and②carry real bow sand③arrow s，swords，lances，javelins and④crossbows in their hands.（TETT）
（2）And⑤farther behind，high up on themountain stands a screen of five peaks coloured by green trees an d⑥bamboos and⑦marked by serene valleys and⑧rocks of pleasing shapes.（TETT）
（3）Spring and⑨fall a re mild and⑩ideal for hiking.（OETT）
（4）Follow park signs to the harbor and
then to the visitor center on Spinnaker Drive.Get oriented here and
then go to the nearby Island Packers office and
inquire about boat schedules to the islands.（OETT）
（5）They are the strongest during themonths of Jul yand
August，and
their average duration is from 2 to 4 days，although they do not have the same frequency of appearance every year.（OETT）
And is a widely used conjunction in English.It can be used to connect words，phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical function in a construction.It can also be used at the very beginning of the sentence to contribute for continuity.W ithin 53 words in the sentences extracted from TETT，and occurs 8 times.To be specific，①③④⑥⑧connect the juxtaposed nouns；②and⑦link the juxtaposed verbs；⑤is used at the beginning for continuity with the former sentence.As for the sentence taken from OETT，⑨and
joint the juxtaposed nouns；
bridges the infinitive to the harbor and to the visitor，in other words，it combines two juxtaposed phrases；
and
connect two juxtaposed verbs；
links two clauses with a comm a before and.
In OETT，the conjunction and seldom playsmore than one role in the sentence，so it is easy for readers to catch themeaning.W hen and is used to connect two clauses，there is usually a comma before to separate the two clauses.But it is hybrid-used in TETT.In Sentence（1），and is used to connect both the juxtaposed nouns and verbs.It takes a long time for readers to understand themeaning of the sentence.
The overuse of and in TETT is influenced by the source language.It is common to use parallel structures in Chinese without conjunctions，while in English all the structuresmust be linked together by prepositions or conjunctions.In the process of translation，many added ands make TETT show features of“third code”—specialties different with the original text and target text.
4.2.3.4 Abbreviation
From Table 4.7 and Table 4.8，it can be found abbreviation is significantly used in OETT but seldom occurs in TETT.An abbreviation is a shorter way for word or phrase.People use abbreviations for words that they w rite a lot.T is a construction marker emerging in the expression of don't，won't，can't，isn't，haven't；ll is short for will；s can both be used as generative and be short for is，does，was.Table 4.9 makes a contrast of abbreviation use between OETT and TETT.
Table 4.9 Abbreviation and Full Forms of OETT and TETT according to Antconc
Exam ple 8：
（1）Kuta is not pretty but it's not dull either.（OETT）
（2）Don't be surprised if there's an hour-long wait to ascend.（OETT）
（3）If you're lucky，_yo_u__'l_l see the occasional native deer grazing themeager grass that grows in small patches on the trail.（OETT）
（4）It is one of the largest tem ples in themountain area.（TETT）
（5）Do not bathe in the hot spring if you do not feel very well or when you are hungry.（TETT）
（6）The sound of birdsong ismost pleasant in this quietness while you will be enchanted by the color changes as you climb your way up.（TETT）
OETT and TETT have similar occurrences on auxiliary verbs（OETT 2325，TETT 2261）.However，they focus on different forms.OETT utilizesmore abbreviations than TETT（806＆383）and less full forms（1519＆1878）.The less formal language in OETT makes it easier to read and understand.
4.2.3.5 H igh Frequency Verbs
As is shown in Table 4.8，called is overused in TETT，while offers and get are overused in OETT.Called appears 86 times in TETT.Thereinto，called after appears for once，called＋proper noun 85 tim es.It only occurs 28 times in OETT.Thereinto，called＋person's name for once，called for 4 times and called＋proper noun 22 times.In TETT，the pattern be called＋proper noun appears nearly four timesmore than in OETT（85＆22）.The overuse of the pattern is caused by the Chinese tradition to introduce alias of a spot，usually in a figurative way，see Example 9（4）（5）.
Exam ple 9：
（1）One day，aman called Liko went swimming here and themoo tried to attack him.（OETT，called＋person's name）
（2）Founded in 1924，the area was first called Phoenix Mountain Park.（OETT，called＋proper noun）
（3）One is called Xiongmaohai and the other Jianzhuhai.（TETT）
（4）This is called“everlasting lam p”which was supposed to provide“everlasting light”.（TETT）
（5）Huanglong is thus called“A Fairyland on Earth”.（TETT）
Get occurs 39 times in OETT but only 10 times in TETT.Concordance in Antconc shows that in most cases get is used to offer suggestion.The patterns when you...you get，if you...you get and you can get...often occur.It proves TETT has less suggestion than OETT.
Exam ple 10：
（1）How to Get There（OETT）
（2）It takes about forty minutes to get to it.（OETT）
（3）As the field is not very high，tourists can easily get into the orchard to look around.（TETT）
（4）If you take a bamboo raft trip fleeting through the river，you
will get quite a viewof the water and themountain.（TETT）
As for offer，it appears 57 tim es in OETT and only 19 times in TETT.Offer means to present in order to meet a need or satisfy a requirement.The widespread use of offer in OETT accentuates the principal status of spots and enhances the communication with readers.
Exam ple 11：
（1）The concourse，which is the walkway that joins the two buildings，offers visitors a food court and gift shop.（OETT）
（2）Sellicks Beach in the south our pristine coastline offers abundant choice for the beach-lover.（OETT）
（3）Longji's terraced fields offer some of themost fantastic scenery in Guilin or indeed China.（TETT）
（4）And many small restaurants offer particularly Li River cuisine，such as fish，eel，frog，snail，shrim p and snake.（TETT）
It is worth mentioning that OETT highly values the interaction between the tourist attractions and receivers.Offer is used together with visitors（1）and beach-lover（2）.However，this kind of interaction is absent in TETT.Com paratively speaking，OETT is more proficient in dealing with readers.