2.5.3 AVT Study in China
Compared with the development of Literary Translation in China,the study of AVT has not historically been a major branch in translation studies because of the aforementioned reasons.No systemic theories have been constructed as a result.However,in the short history of the development of AVT study in China,three leading figures are worthy of introduction.
Qian has over 1，000 AVT works to his name as a translation practitioner.Many of his works are well known in China，such as for the popular American TV series Growing Pains and The Thorn Birds.In 2000，he published an article entitled《影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域》 （“AVT study： Its growing importance within translation studies”）.He stated that the translation of film is an important and creative activity.It is not only a means of exhibiting foreign cultures but a direct way of introducing local culture to the world.Translators ought to take the cultural elements，film industry values，audience psychology，and social effect into consideration.In order to bring about an equivalent translation，they need to be faithful to the original content，and fully understand the inherent cultural differences.
Appealing to relevant scholars and practitioners to put more effort into the study of AVT,his article concluded that there are five features of language in AVT products; namely,comprehensive,audio,instantaneous,informal and non-annotated.At first,AVT products should be regarded as comprehensive works of arts,because an audience can obtain both audio and visual information.Secondly,AVT products differ from literary works given the audio features involved.Thirdly,because subtitles and dialogue emerge on the screen instantaneously,the translated subtitles should be equally instantaneous as well.Next,audiences have to comprehend immediately if the verbal language in AVT products is instantaneous.Consequently,it makes the language in AVT informal in its expression.In other words,the subtitle translation should be simple and easily understood by the average audience.Last but not least,in contrast to literary translation,AVT translation cannot be annotated because of its time and spatial constraints.
Moreover,informed by his rich experience as a translation practitioner,he drew attention to seven features of translation technique in this article.The first is to help audiences work out objectively; the second is to emphasize the synchronism of the subtitles and actors’ lip movements; the third is to make subtitles match film pictures,with translators encouraged to introduce a pause in subtitles if there is a pause in any character’s dialogue; the fourth is that translators need to consider whether it is necessary to include an annotation in instances involving non-verbal language,such as gestures by the actors; the fifth is that translators have to make sure their translation is an equal transfer in terms of both language and culture; the sixth is that translators have to think about difficult language points,such as puns and jokes; and,finally,the seventh is that the translated version should be simple and easily understood by the average audience.Amongst the translation principles of “faithfulness,comprehensiveness and aesthetics” (Yan,1898 cited in Zhang 2009: 64),Qian has stated that “comprehensiveness” is the most important criterion for him,because the readable information from the translated subtitles is the main concern of the audience.
More recently，scholars have discussed Qian’s definitions of AVT language features more widely and deeply.These include Du who wrote a chapter entitled “影视翻译的特殊性” （“The Specialty of AVT”） in his （2013） book，《基础影视翻译与研究》 （Basic AVT Study）； and，Zhang in the （2011） article《影视语言的特点及〈爱丽丝梦游仙境〉中文配音翻译赏析》 （“AVT language features and an analysis on the dubbing of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland ”）.Some scholars have considered Qian’s seven features of technique in relation to their own study areas； for example，Zhang’s （2013） article，《中外电影英文字幕的翻译的异同分析》 （“The difference between Chinese and English subtitle translation”），emphasized the importance of cultural awareness in AVT works in his explanation of Qian’s seven features of practical techniques.He discussed the highly frequent use of Skopos，functionalism，or other types of “audience-centred” theories as representing the mainstream in AVT study in China.He also suggested that the strategies of direct translation，free translation and condensation are effective in the context of AVT.While I agree with “audience-centred” theories，compared with Even-Zohar’s polysystem theory，the latter is more considerate to the various influence factors of AVT products （this theory will be discussed in more detail in the later part of this chapter as the theoretical framework of this study）.
Overall,Qian’s five features of AVT language and seven practical techniques have offered a younger generation of scholars an invaluable foundation on which to build their own study.
Ma’s specialism is translation and intercultural communications studies.He has nearly 30 years’ experience as a practitioner in AVT.Amongst his practical works，his translation for programs such as “正大剧场” （“Zhengda Theatre”） and “国际影院” （“International Film Theatre”） on CCTV，as well as his translations for over 50 TV series （about 600 episodes in total） helped him win the “Feitian Prize”，a competition for dubbed films.In 1997，he published an article called 《论影视翻译的基本原则》 （“A discussion on the basic features of AVT”） in his university’s academic journal.In this article，Ma listed five basic features of AVT based on his professional knowledge and extensive practical experience.The five features are： colloquial，personalized verbal language，emotional，lip-sync and popular.Moreover，in another article （2003），he re-emphasized these five features in a deeper way by referring to copious practical examples.
In 2011，12 out of 78 articles were focused on the perspective of cultural awareness.In her article published in 《时代文学》 （Times Literature），under the title of《影视翻译的跨文化探析》 （“The study of audiovisual translation from the perspective of intercultural study”），from the perspective of intercultural communication，she defined the concept of “Intercultural Interpretation” as a means by which to use relevant methods and theories in the study of intercultural communication to solve difficulties in AVT.The main concerns in her study are the importance of equivalent “information transfer” between the source and target languages，and the use of the “target audiencecentred” translation method.Hu regarded “translation” as a kind of intercultural activity，stating that language，culture，and translation are three elements that cannot be separated.I agree with this opinion and believe that these three elements are the essentials of subtitle translation.Moreover，in this article，Hu talked about the main features of film language as being colloquial，simple and characterized，cultural，partial，and limits in time and space.
The linguistic peculiarities in both the original language and the target language should be studied in the first instance.For Ma,conclusions about film language features are made more from the perspective of mechanic considerations,while Hu emphasizes the need for more awareness of cultural components.In this study,since the focus is on language and culture,Hu’s conclusion needs to be explained in more detail.In my understanding,these features can be explained as in the following:
Colloquial
Most films focus on telling a story through a series of interactions involving the main characters.The interactions are always conducted through dialogue.Therefore,the language within the dialogue is commonly recognized as colloquial in its expression.
Simplicity
As most communication is by colloquial language,language in common narrative films should be simple and easy to comprehend.
Characterization
With different roles and characters in a film,the manner of spoken as well as non-verbal languages (e.g.,body language) may differ.Therefore,performances may vary according to the difference in characterization,including use of language.
Culture
Cultural elements may appear anywhere in a film,and language is a key conduit for the communication of culturally significant information (Kramsch 1998: 35).(https://www.daowen.com)
Partiality
Film translation normally appears in the form of subtitles or dubbing.In both these forms,language transfer is part of the process that has to be brought together with the movie pictures,voicing and other elements before the full translated product can be presented to the audience.
Limits in Time and Space
As subtitles cannot be isolated by other components in a film product,they are limited by time and space constraints.On the one hand,they cannot remain in a fixed place in the same way as the words in a book or other printed literature.When the image or setting in a given film sequence changes,the subtitles should unavoidably be changed – that is the nature of their temporal aspect.Similar to this,the nature of a subtitle’s spatial aspect also needs to be considered when the translator determines the length of each piece of translated subtitle.
In June 2005，Ma published the book《影视译制概论》 （The Theory of Audiovisual Translation） with the help of his university publishing house.In this book，which is considered to be an important work in the area of AVT study within China in recent years，Ma analysed the essence of AVT，explained the concept of translated films and discussed the nature of translated films and their meanings in relation to sociocultural development.He further stated in this book his understanding of the principles of film translation，as well as offering solutions to some of the problems that occurred in his practical experience.From the perspectives of Communication，the second coding theory，Semiology，Hermeneutics，and Aesthetics，amongst others，Ma offered his various criticisms and analyses of the theory of AVT.
Building on Ma’s five AVT principles,postgraduate students and other young scholars have developed their own case studies in this subject area.For instance,in his (2011) dissertation entitled Film Subtitle Translation with the Perspective of Functionalism —A Case Study of Gong Fu Panda,Zhang discussed the translation strategies used by the fansubs (e.g.,expansion,explanation) and explained the benefits in using popular Internet words and frequently used terms (hot words).As I presume that these popular expressions are used in the released subtitle translation as well,I will operationalize the chosen methodologies to test my findings in the discussion and data analysis chapters.
Another leading figure in the area of AVT in China is Zhang，who specializes in translation theories and practice and the study of AVT.He has also been responsible for translating over 300 episodes of TV series including 《神探亨特》 （Hunter），《欲望号街车》 （A Streetcar Named Desire） and《安娜·卡列尼娜》 （Анна Каренина）.
In 1998，Zhang defined language in AVT as possessing two distinctive features — instantaneous and popular — in his article entitled 《影视翻译初探》 （“The first exploration of AVT”），which was published in the renowned academic journal，《中国翻译》 （Chinese Translators Journal）.In this article，Zhang highlighted the differences between AVT and literary translation，as well as explaining his understanding of the nature，principles and techniques of AVT.In addition，he emphasized the important role that cultural elements play in AVT and，by analysing practical examples，discussed methods especially for translating puns.
The younger generation of AVT scholars has often referred to Zhang’s definition of AVT language features in their own research.One example would be Zheng’s （2011） Master’s degree dissertation，《从德国功能翻译理论探析电影字幕翻译》 （Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of German Functionalism），in which she combined the ideas of Zhang and Qian’s definition of AVT language features，and located them within her discussion by analysing specific examples.Taking the features of AVT language as her foundation，she discussed translation strategies used from the perspective of German Functionalism.According to her conclusion，AVT language features，such as colloquial or instantaneous features，are inevitable given the specific characteristics of AVT products.Translators should be vigilant about the presence of these characteristics in their work in order to ensure that every element of an AVT product is synchronized so that the finished product is both accurate and acceptable to audiences.
The above three scholars have become well known in the area of AVT in China as a consequence of their considerable experience as practitioners and insights in AVT practice and research.More recent scholars have in turn built their own research work on the foundations of these pioneers，and in turn made their own unique contributions to the discussion of AVT，its features and principles，in a broader and deeper way.Li （2001） analysed the characteristics of subtitle translation and identified relevant strategies in his published article，《字幕翻译策略》 （“Subtitling strategies”）.Discussing his own practical experience from the perspective of text translation theory，he offered solutions for addressing the constraints on time and space in AVT，and also emphasized the features of AVT language and the impact of cultural factors in subtitle translation.In conclusion，he stated that subtitle translation should offer the audience as much information as effectively possible within the limited time and spatial conditions that exist.
In Zhao’s article《译制片翻译中的四对主要矛盾》 （“Four pairs of conflicts in translated movies”），she analysed a number of actual practitioner experiences and concluded that there are four pairs of conflict in AVT： 1） between the shape of the character’s mouth and the context； 2） between the order of language speaking and the pictures； 3） foreignization and domestication； and，4） transliteration and free translation.She offered her own solutions for solving these problems，emphasizing the strategies of synchronization，coherence and cultural images in the process.The first two conflicts in her study belong to the category of mechanics and techniques，while the last two conflicts refer to the translation methods and strategies that are considered to be widely used in film translation.Other than the way in which one language is translated into another，the method of transferring one culture into another is also concerned.
Other scholars have focused their studies from other perspectives,such as linguistics,translation studies and cultural studies,such as Wang who in 2013 explored translation strategies for jokes,slang,vulgarity,court language,figures etc.In the West,scholars have also applied certain translation theories to the study of AVT.The main theories are relevance theory,Skopos theory,descriptive translation and interdisciplinary studies.The same is true in China,where scholars have usually combined these theories and applied them to their research into AVT.They have also focused on the discussion of Lefevere’s power controlling theory and Venuti’s domestication theory (Gambier 2008: 25).For instance,Wang (2007) focused on the combination of Skopos theory and functionalism in explaining the features of AVT.According to Wang,translators ought to select the most useful information from the original dialogue,and then translate it into the target language.This suggestion first guides the subtitlers towards an understanding of the original text so that they can then be in a position to select the essential meaning of the original text,thereby expressing it in the target language.Given the mechanical limitations of film subtitles,I agree with this suggestion.However,decimation or deletion is not applicable in film translation,since an extreme approach will render the translation non-understandable.
Translation is regarded as “an act of intercultural communication rather than simply inter-linguistic” (Cintas,in Orero ed.2004: 31).Through the social organization of talk,culture is constructed across day-to-day dialogues; therefore,the term “cultural awareness” has been defined as sensitivity to the impact of culturally-induced behaviour on language use and communication (Kramsch 1998: 51; Tomalin and Stempleski,1993: 5).When considering the translation of foreign films,we may have to raise awareness of cultural information in order to make the audience comprehend the movie appropriately.With this in mind,the use of key analysed memes may help the film translators improve the quality of their work.As a consequence,the researcher will focus on the differences between Western and Chinese culture in my book with a view to improving the accuracy in E-C subtitling films and effectiveness in making the subtitles compatible in Chinese culture.
In the past few years,scholars have begun to study AVT from the perspective of cultural studies.Foreign films,for example,as a carrier of culture,have introduced target audiences to different cultures.In response,some scholars have discussed the impact of cultural elements in AVT work,while others have undertaken AVT research from the viewpoint of intercultural communication.Zhao and Liu have instead focused on the methods of subtitling,by analysing the use of literal translation,free translation,and condensed translation,and explaining their effective functions in translating languages and cultures present in film dialogues.Chai (2001) has also discussed some techniques that can be applied when dealing with cultural differences in subtitling,such as rebuilding (to express the original in the subtitlers’ own words,to transfer the original culture to the target culture by filling in the cultural gaps); polishing (to modify the translated subtitle so that it reflects accuracy of language and acceptability of culture) and transferring (to successfully transfer languages and cultures).Meanwhile,Gong (2008) has drawn attention to condensation,literal translation,domestication and abstraction in solving cultural transference problems.Increasing awareness of cultural elements in subtitle translation is a study trend both in the West and in China,which is a reflection of increasing globalization.The strategies mentioned by Chai and Gong set up a clear framework for the use of appropriate strategies in subtitle translation from the perspective of cultural awareness.That said,they only proposed a very limited number of strategies.
Although the study of AVT in China developed much later than in the West,increasing numbers of Chinese scholars are now devoting themselves to this study field,often following a certain degree of personal achievement in both practical work and theoretical systematizing.Although young Chinese scholars appreciate the achievements made in both the West and China,the gap between China and Western countries is still wide.The next step for the study of AVT in China,then,should be the systematic construction of theories by Chinese scholars,alongside the promotion of the study of AVT in a more diversified and interdisciplinary way.In this research,I hope to identify the features of subtitle translation in E-C animation films,as well as discuss effective translation strategies.These contributions will hopefully strengthen AVT study pursuits in China,at both a theoretical and practical level.
Between 2008 and 2013，a keyword search for “audiovisual translation/subtitling” conducted with the primary academic online reference source in China，cnki.net，returned over 60 articles on this subject in each of the last five years.Till this year，more and more scholars （about 1，600 articles） have begun to study this subject in a disciplinary way.For example，some scholars have undertaken their work from the perspective of cultural difference or intercultural communication.In 2012，there were 6 out of 64 papers on this subject，while，in 2013，there were 12 out of 72 papers looking into it.Other scholars have focused on the discussion of effective translation strategies from the perspective of Reception Aesthetics，Poetics，Psychology，or Ecological Aesthetics.In 2013，in her article entitled《从接受美学的角度看影视字幕翻译》 （“The study of audiovisual subtitle translation from the perspective of reception aesthetics”），Wu pointed out that the target audience’s reception ought to be at the centre of subtitle translation.Translators need to provide the target audience with the same level of appreciation as that for the source audience.Although the language preference of the receptors is a key when evaluating the quality of a subtitle translation，it is not the only criterion.Besides，the linguistic features of the translated language，the receptor’s literacy level and the cultural difference are all important factors in subtitle translation.The hypotheses established in this study are mainly focused on all the above factors in order to obtain more productive research results.Further，some scholars have discussed their views on the translation of certain common Chinese expressions，such as idioms and archaisms.As these expressions always refer to ancient Chinese sayings or moral stories，I am minded that they can embody traditional Chinese culture to some degree.Liu （2010） states that Nord’s “function plus loyalty” theory is feasible in the translation of Chinese archaisms.In her opinion，in the process of translating archaisms，translators need to be aware of the transformation of the source meaning.Although the case study in this book focuses on E-C translation，I believe the idea of keeping the original meaning in the course of translating is applicable in E-C translation as well.Therefore，in my research，in the translation of E-C subtitles involving the use of archaisms，I also need to make sure that the original meaning in English is not changed.Cheng （2011） discusses the use of Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory，Toury’s “translated text-centred” theory，and Venuti’s foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese idioms.In turn，she refers to the strategies of literal translation，expansion，condensation，annotation in the translation of Chinese idioms.In subtitle translations，however，in view of the mechanical limits，literal translation and condensation may be more appropriate than the other two methods （I will discuss this matter in detail in the data analysis and discussion chapters）.