氧化应激与阿尔茨海默病

三、氧化应激与阿尔茨海默病

所谓氧化应激是指人体内氧自由基的清除和产生失去平衡,这种失衡状态导致活性氧ROS在体内堆积而引起的应激反应。文献证实,自由基引起的氧化应激损伤是不同病因诱发神经退行性疾病的共同通路。

氧化应激反应参与阿尔茨海默病等神经退行性疾病的发生及发展的机制是:①氧自由基的产生增多。脑组织中代谢速率较快,对氧的需求极其高,线粒体氧化磷酸化产生ATP的同时伴随大量氧自由基的产生,神经元内不饱和脂肪酸的浓度很高,因此,极易发生脂质过氧化反应而产生脂质过氧化产物。②氧自由基清除障碍。神经细胞中存在抗氧化应激成分,但这些天然的抗氧化成分含量非常低,致使大脑清除氧自由基的能力相对较弱;更重要的是,脑内血脑屏障这一屏障性结构可阻止氧自由基扩散入血液,从而导致氧自由基不能及时清除。综上所述,这些特点均使得脑组织极易受到氧自由基的攻击,从而为氧化应激诱导神经退行性疾病的发生提供了结构基础。

原子在轨道或最外层各携带两个电子。如果轨道上仅有一个电子,则这个电子被称为“不成对的”,任何有不成对电子的原子或分子被称为自由基。在机体内的自由基常以氧或氮的形式存在,即氧自由基和氮自由基。而活性氧(ROS)指的是化学性质比氧活泼的含氧活性物质的统称,包括氧自由基及其歧化产物如过氧化氢(H2O2)。所有需氧有机体都能产生自由基,主要在线粒体产生。细胞每日利用1013个O2,其中呼吸分子氧的1%将形成O2,因此每日每个细胞大约产生1011个自由基。正常情况下,这些氧自由基并不会引起机体的病理改变,因为机体有对抗自由基损伤的防御系统,主要包括一些自由基解毒酶,如谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、谷胱甘肽还原酶、过氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和过氧化氢酶(CAT),它们能清除这些自由基,使自由基的产生和清除处于平衡。如果自由基的产生超出机体的清除能力,则会引起机体的一些病理改变。

早在1956年,Harman就提出氧化损伤可能与衰老有关,后来的研究也证实阿尔茨海默病患者的确伴有自由基的大量产生。Smith等的实验表明氧化损伤发生在阿尔茨海默病的早期,在NFT和老年斑出现之前就已发生。Nicolas在阿尔茨海默病患者脑内,特别是在神经纤维缠结中,还发现了大量氧化应激的标志物如硫巴妥酸和丙二醛。其他一些学者也在阿尔茨海默病患者脑内发现了过氧化亚硝酸盐、糖化终末产物,进一步证明了氧化应激与阿尔茨海默病病理改变直接相关。目前的研究证明阿尔茨海默病中的自由基产生主要有以下4个途径:①具有氧化还原活性的铁在NFTs和Aβ沉积斑中均有升高,铁催化H2O2生成羟基。②围绕在老年斑周围的被活化的小胶质细胞是NO和O2-的来源。试验证明,NO和O2-反应生成过氧亚硝酸阴离子(ONOO-)进而分解成毒性极强的氢氧根离子(OH-)和NO2自由基(NO2-)。③糖基化终产物遇到一些金属能发生氧化还原反应,从而产生ROS。此外,糖化终产物能刺激特殊受体(如糖化终产物受体和清道夫受体),从而增加ROS的产生。④线粒体的异常和代谢酶的缺乏与活性氧的生成有关,被认为是自由基的主要来源和始动因素。

与其他组织相比,脑组织更容易受到自由基的攻击,因为神经元的谷胱甘肽含量较低,而且只含有中等量的抗氧化酶,故清除自由基的能力相对较弱。其次,神经元富含对自由基敏感的多不饱和脂肪酸,极易被氧化。阿尔茨海默病伴有大量自由基生成,而清除自由基能力又不足,所以神经元受到自由基损伤不可避免,自由基生成与清除之间的不平衡是诱发AD神经病理改变的主要原因。自由基能损伤DNA、氧化蛋白质、使脂质过氧化、产生糖基化终产物。自由基损伤生物膜,使膜磷脂酰丝氨酸暴露,导致细胞完整性丧失,损伤线粒体造成氧化磷酸化障碍,导致细胞能量不足,损伤脂质产生过氧化,使核糖核酸失活,造成DNA和RNA交联,触发DNA突变。过氧化脂质代谢分解产生丙烯醛和HNE(4-hydroxy-2-nonenal),它们与脑内蛋白质及磷酸结合能形成脂褐素沉积于脑内,导致智力障碍。一些实验还表明,HNE能破坏细胞内外的钙离子平衡,导致Na+-K+-ATP酶活性异常及损害葡萄糖转运,从而降低大鼠海马神经元的活力。另有一些学者提出氧化应激引起的神经元变性与蛋白质凋亡基因的活化、轴突退化(突轴断裂)、线粒体运输受损有关,线粒体功能受损,使形成和维持突轴联系的分子表达减少,从而影响记忆和认知功能。

此外,诸多研究表明,氧化应激参与阿尔茨海默病的发病,是阿尔茨海默病的主要致病因素之一,并且在阿尔茨海默病的发病机制的众多学说中,氧化应激学说与其他几种假说之间有着直接或间接的联系。有证据表明,阿尔茨海默病患者脑内伴有大量ROS产生,如超氧化物、过氧化氢和一氧化氮等。这些活性氧对于神经元的损伤和凋亡具有重要的调控作用。对大鼠和人的神经元进行抗氧化处理,能够显著降低Aβ诱导的神经毒性。研究发现,阿尔茨海默病患者脑内蛋白质、脂膜和DNA也具有的较高的氧化水平。此外,阿尔茨海默病患者脑脊液和血液的脂质过氧化程度与阿尔茨海默病D病理的严重程度呈现明显的正相关。因此,氧化应激能够作为判断阿尔茨海默病病理进程的重要指标。研究显示,Aβ可以诱导的线粒体膜电位崩解,ROS产生,凋亡相关蛋白Bcl-2/Bax比值下降以及Caspase-3激活与活化,最终诱导细胞凋亡的发生。线粒体是ROS产生的主要来源,同时过多的ROS产生时,线粒体也是其最主要的攻击靶点。几乎在所有的阿尔茨海默病患者脑中,均发现有线粒体数量的明显减少或其呼吸作用的损伤。此外,集中于线粒体膜上的APP和Aβ可以阻断核编码的线粒体蛋白进入,结果导致电子传递阻断,引发ROS的产生。当ROS产生过多时,脂质过氧化随之发生,生物膜受损,从胞外流入胞内和从线粒体释放的钙离子大量增多,从而引发钙超载,加速通透性转运孔的开放,促进细胞色素C的释放,最终激活细胞凋亡相关酶类Caspase家族,引发细胞凋亡的级联反应。利用阿尔茨海默病患者的脑组织进行氧化终产物的有关研究已经证实,在AD患者的脑组织中都可以发现胞内大分子的有氧化形式存在,且水平明显增加,其中包括丙二醛(Malondialdehyde,MDA)和超氧化物酶(Superoxidedismutase,SOD)。Nunomura等利用8-羟鸟苷酸作为核酸的氧化标志物,发现核酸的氧化损伤主要发生在AD患者易感神经元的细胞质。除此之外,阿尔茨海默病患者脑内线粒体的一些酶复合物减少。更深入的研究发现,Aβ寡聚体能够诱导神经元凋亡,干扰突触之间的信号传递,从而参与阿尔茨海默病早期的氧化应激损伤。Tau蛋白过度磷酸化介导的线粒体功能紊乱,能够产生过量的ROS和RNS,导致SOD和GSH-Px活性失调。最近研究发现,阿尔茨海默病患者脑内AGEs/RAGE通路过度激活能够增加线粒体的氧化应激水平,从而介导细胞凋亡的发生。总之,多种证据都表明氧化应激及细胞凋亡与阿尔茨海默病的发病过程密切相关。

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(王 玥)