雷 雨
王书琪
一.导演、演员介绍
1.导演
孙道临是电影《雷雨》的编剧、导演和演员(饰周朴园),他集电影演员、电影导演、配音演员、朗诵艺术家、文学翻译和散文作者于一身,“具有浓厚的知识分子气质”(倪震,2012),被称为是“一个充满了书卷气和儒雅气质的艺术家”(黄一庆,2008)。
1921年12月18日,孙道临出生于北京一个知识分子家庭,父亲孙文耀官费留学比利时,回国后曾担任交通部工程师。在父亲的言传身教和严加管教下,孙道临从小接受了中西文化的熏陶,培养了对知识的热爱和崇敬。1938年,孙道临考入燕京大学哲学系,在这期间,受好友黄宗江的影响,他开始对戏剧感兴趣。1939年,燕京剧社排演话剧《雷雨》,黄宗江热情地邀请他出演周冲,虽然最终没能如愿上台,但他以场记的身份全程参与了排练,“和戏剧结缘,是从这时开始的”(孙道临,1984)。因此,可以说《雷雨》是他戏剧上的启蒙,1984年的电影《雷雨》也让他如愿以偿,只不过年过六旬、饱经沧桑的他从当年的周冲候选人成了现在的周朴园。
孙道临有着丰富的演艺经历,在新中国成立后的50—60年代饰演了一系列军队指挥员、战斗员形象,比较受欢迎的有《渡江侦察记》(1954)和《永不消逝的电波》(1958)中的李侠。晚年多塑造知识分子形象,如《李四光》(1979)(饰李四光)、《非常大总统》(1986)(饰孙中山)、《詹天佑》(2001)(导演),其中《詹天佑》获得了第7届中国电影华表奖最佳故事片奖。2005年,孙道临被授予中国电影百年百位优秀演员奖。2007年12月28日,因突发心脏病去世,享年86岁。
2.演员
《雷雨》中繁漪的扮演者顾永菲也像繁漪一样“有雷雨的性格”(盛棘,1984)。关于顾永菲饰演繁漪有一个小插曲。其实一开始繁漪的演员已经内定他人,只是嫌其太年轻。孙道临和曹禺看了顾永菲演的《但愿人长久》之后,便把她要到上海去试镜,并当场拍案由她饰演。
顾永菲的个人经历对角色的塑造很有帮助。她1946年出生于江苏南通,1962年考入上海戏剧学院表演系。但在“文革”时,由于“政治身份不清白”而被下放到工厂和农场,在那儿拉犁、扒粪,和舞台渐行渐远。正在苦恼时,1974年,新疆军区文工团来招演员,她不畏艰苦、长途跋涉去演出,终于重拾演员梦,而那时她已三十一岁。她说“失去的总想要夺回来”,就像在周公馆失去青春的繁漪执着追求与周萍的爱情一样,在十年浩劫中失去青春的她执着追求艺术,她像繁漪一样有着雷雨一样的性格,也难怪同样饰演过繁漪的吕恩赞其“演得真不错,有自己的感受和体验”(晏学等,1986)。
【参考文献】
百度百科.孙道临.[DB/OL].[2020-08-25].https://baike.baidu.com/item/孙道临/1874217?fr=aladdin
黄一庆.一个充满了书卷气和儒雅气质的艺术家——张瑞芳追忆孙道临先生[J].电影新作,2008(02):5-7.
倪震.一个知识分子的银幕史——论孙道临的电影创作道路[J].当代电影,2012(05):24-32.
盛棘.她有雷雨的性格——访影片《雷雨》中繁漪的扮演者顾永菲[J].电影评介,1984(06):20.
孙道临.谈《雷雨》的电影改编[J].电影艺术,1984(07):44-52.
晏学,张逸生,张雁,吕恩,阙文,石羽,邵牧君.银幕向舞台的挑战——《日出》《雷雨》《原野》影片座谈会(二)[J].电影艺术,1986(07):34-43.
二.电影梗概
电影《雷雨》由孙道临执导,于1984年上映。改编自曹禺的同名话剧。电影基本按照原剧的结构,在不到二十四小时的时间内,集中展示了周鲁两家三十年的恩怨情仇。
三十年前,年轻的周朴园爱上了仆人梅妈的女儿侍萍,并和她生了两个孩子。但后来周家为了娶一位门当户对的小姐,逼迫侍萍带着刚出生三天的二儿子离开周家,大儿子周萍则留在了周家。周侍萍走投无路欲投河自尽,侥幸被人救起,于是带着二儿子流落他乡,靠做佣人为生,后来嫁给了鲁贵,和鲁贵生了女儿四凤。周朴园娶的那位小姐未生育子女便去世了,后来周朴园又娶了年轻的繁漪,并与之生了儿子周冲。周朴园的专制蛮横以及监狱似的住宅让接受过新式教育的繁漪感到几乎闷死、枯死,而和她年龄差不多的周萍对她表示了同情和爱慕,由于周朴园经营矿山业务,常年不在家,两个人便有机会私通在了一起,这使得繁漪“又活了过来”,恢复了生气。
然而,周萍却厌倦了这种不正常的关系,再加上慑于父亲的威严,于是想摆脱繁漪,便移情新来的侍女四凤,并打算到父亲的矿上去,一走了之。与此同时,周冲也向四凤表达了爱意。繁漪得知周萍变心后,企图说服他未果。于是她叫来四凤的母亲鲁侍萍,让她把四凤带走。这才有了电影一开始的父女对话。鲁侍萍来到周家后,担心四凤重蹈她当年的覆辙,急于把她带走,却与周朴园不期而遇,二人相认,三十年前的故事逐渐浮现出来。此时四凤的哥哥鲁大海正在作为罢工代表前来与周朴园交涉,不料交涉过程中与周萍发生了争执,鲁大海遭到了殴打。
鲁家一家人回家后,周萍从窗户跳进来与四凤幽会,而尾随周萍而来的繁漪将窗户从外面插上,导致周萍无法离开,被鲁大海发现,鲁大海将其赶出去,四凤也跟着跑了出去。鲁妈回到周公馆中找到了四凤,但得知四凤已怀有身孕三个月,迫于无奈只好答应四凤跟着周萍走。这时繁漪出来阻拦,并呼出周朴园,告诉他周萍和四凤的关系,让周萍喊鲁侍萍妈妈。混乱之中,周朴园错以为繁漪知道了鲁侍萍是周萍生母之事,于是承认了鲁侍萍的身份。此时繁漪、四凤和周萍才恍然大悟,原来四凤和周萍是同母异父的兄妹。四凤受到了刺激冲出门外,在外触电而死,随后赶来寻找四凤的周冲也触电而死,周萍在冷笑中开枪自杀。
三.相关获奖、报刊评价情况,颁奖辞和权威的获奖评价
1.相关获奖情况
2.相关评价
正面评价
该片忠实于原作的主题思想和艺术风格。无论人物性格的刻画、情节的安排,还是矛盾冲突的展开,都比较准确地表现了原作的精神。孙道临扮演的周朴园,把暴君式家长、伪君子的丑恶灵魂表现得很鲜明。而且影片没有掩盖原作存在的局限性,没有拔高它的思想性。同时,该片充分发挥了电影艺术的特长,突破了舞台时空的限制,运用蒙太奇手法,将原作中通过对话交代的事情做了具体的描述,不但没有损伤原作的主题思想和艺术风格,而且更丰富了情节的内容,加深了观众的印象,也加快了情节发展的节奏。(《电影评介》评)
·负面评价
该片在对不同艺术品种进行移植的探索中作出了巨大努力,但是,这次探索未能尽如人意。该片的创作者既想保持原作固有的戏剧性,又要使其符合电影艺术的规律,既拘泥于话剧本的原结构,又想突破话剧的时空局陷,使自己陷入了难以解脱的矛盾之中。(《电影艺术》评)
该片的主要毛病是时空关系没有掌握好,有的地方为了间隔而跳切,例如“说鬼”的戏跳得太厉害,周朴园送警察,一会儿在屋里,一会儿又在楼梯过道,没什么戏。改编名著切忌这些不必要的枝蔓。有些慢镜头的运用破坏了悲剧的气氛,让人出戏 。(原北京电影制片厂导演阙文评)
【参考文献】
百度百科.《雷雨》(1984年孙道临执导电影).[DB/OL]. [2020-08-25].https://baike.baidu.com/item/雷雨/2411343?fr=aladdin龚诚.孙道临文艺创作、社会活动及获奖情况一览[J].当代电影; 2012(05):32-34.
四.评论文献综述
曹禺的话剧《雷雨》自1933年诞生之初就引发了强烈的反响,甚至形成了空前的“雷雨热”,数十年来屡演不衰。而将一个成功的文艺作品改编成电影向来是一种“挑战”、一个“难题”,甚至是一件“吃力不讨好”的事(曹其敬,1984;瑞丰,1984;赵之成等,1986)。1984年,孙道临凭借着对《雷雨》的一腔热爱,以极大的勇气将其第三次搬上银幕(1) ,引发了各界广泛的关注和讨论,形成了较大规模的影视文化热。《电影艺术》杂志甚至专门组织了以“银幕向舞台的挑战”为主题的高规格学术座谈会,探讨了包括《雷雨》在内的文学名著的电影改编问题。
各界对该片的评价褒贬不一。有人认为其“忠实于原作”“充分发挥出了电影艺术的特长”,是“一个成功的尝试”(瑞丰,1984);而有人则认为其“拘泥于原作”“没有充分发挥电影艺术表现力的长处”,是“一次不成功的挑战”(曹其敬,1984)。总的来说,对该电影的批评之声大于赞美之声。但不能否认的是,该片为中国文学作品的影视改编开了一个好头,在中国当代电影史上具有不可忽略的意义(彭海军,2001;田小惠等,1986)。接下来,我们将从结构、主题、角色以及电影技巧四个角度分析影片《雷雨》的内涵及其改编的成败得失。
曹禺先生的戏剧一向结构严谨,其中以《雷雨》为最。《雷雨》严格遵守“三一律”原则,“集三十年纠葛于一天,拢四方之人于一地,化社会的腐朽现实和时代的畸形状态于一个家庭的矛盾冲突中”(宇丹,1987)。这种严谨的结构和高度浓缩的时空强化了舞台的戏剧性,但与电影的真实性相抵触,给电影的改编带来了很大困难,使《雷雨》成为曹禺“生命三部曲”(2) 中最难改编的一部,有人甚至认为“要改编,就要打破”(黄宗江)(田小惠等,1986)。但孙道临“自忖缺乏那样的气魄和能力”,因此“宁愿保守些”,“尽量保留原剧本结构的特色”(孙道临,1984)。影片情节完全按照原剧顺序展开,以“过去的戏剧”(周朴园和鲁侍萍的冲突)为暗线,以“今天的戏剧”(繁漪、周萍和四凤三人的感情纠葛)为明线,中间穿插一些幻象、闪回等技法以使其“电影化”。这种保守的改编策略使其能够最大程度忠于原著,但也为其带来不少诟病,很多人因此批评其拘泥原作,没有发挥电影的优势(彭海军,2001;田泽民,1997;朱杰,2003),这一点我们将在后文具体探讨。
虽然曹禺在一开始写《雷雨》的时候并没有明显地意识到“要匡正或攻击些什么”,只是源于“一种复杂而又原始的情绪”(曹禺,2008),但在20世纪30年代中期“左”倾思潮的影响下,其甫一发表就被认为“暴露了大家庭的罪恶”和“中国资产阶级的封建残余”(彭海军,2001;朱杰,2003)。1893年影片改编之时,中国正处于改革开放初期,导演心中依然紧绷着“阶级斗争”这根弦,因而延续了《雷雨》的这一主题,认为“影片的最深之处在于,它可以使人看到几千年来形成的封建思想是如此顽固,如此盘根错节地统治着人们的头脑”(孙道临)(转引自彭海军,2001)。在这种思想的指导下,繁漪是“几千年来在旧礼教束缚下辗转呻吟的妇女”,周朴园是“封建社会上层的一种代表人物”,周萍是“一个封建制度的牺牲品”(孙道临,1984)。但《雷雨》的内涵不止于此。正如曹禺在《<雷雨>序》中所言,《雷雨》所展示的是“天地间的‘残忍’”(曹禺,2008),它不仅仅是一个家庭悲剧或社会问题剧,更扩大到宇宙天地间,表达了对人的生存形态和命运的思考以及思考之后深深的悲悯(尤晓娟,2008)。
《雷雨》中共塑造了八个典型角色,每一个都形象鲜明,是独一无二的“这一个”。导演认为要“在挖掘人物的思想和心理状态上多下功夫”(孙道临,1984),通过特定情节以及人物的神态、语言、动作来表现人物性格。比如通过吃药这场戏展现周朴园的专制蛮横以及繁漪受到的“精神屈辱”(孙道临,1984),通过回叙繁漪与周萍以前的谈情说爱来反衬她现在的压抑与苦闷。但很多评论者仍然觉得“不满足”(晏学)“不过瘾”(苏叔阳)“不够味儿”(黄宗江)(田小惠等,1986;晏学等,1986)。究其原因,一方面在于演员的挑选和表演不够到位,比如孙道临(饰周朴园)的气质“不是演周朴园的,是演大少爷的”(吕恩),顾永菲(饰繁漪)“闷得不够”(黄宗江),周萍“整个儿就不对”(苏叔阳),四凤和鲁侍萍这两个“受压迫最深最苦的女性”“成了最平淡的形象”(黄式宪),鲁贵的形象也“远不及原来的清晰和鲜明”(王培)(田小慧等,1986;晏学等,1986;赵之成等,1986)。另一方面在于电影忽略了“雷雨”这个“第九个角色”(曹禺)(转引自彭海军,2001),没有营造出原剧中那种雷雨欲来的压抑、沉闷氛围,使人物“渴死、枯死、闷死”(台词)的感觉失去了环境依托,因此降低了感染力,比原著“浅了、淡了”(晏学等,1986)。
最后,正如上文所述,虽然该片在结构、主题和角色上基本忠于原著,但其在艺术技巧上没有处理好戏剧和电影这两种艺术形态的差异,太拘泥原著而没有发挥出电影的优势,因而受到很多诟病,可以说是一次失败的“电影化”(朱杰,2003)。其中受批评最多的是闪回镜头的运用,不仅没有使其电影化,反而给人以“图解”之感(田泽民,1997;宇丹,1987),导致“戏跳得太厉害”(黄宗江)“乱了套”(阙文)(田小惠等,1986;晏学等,1986)。比如在鲁贵给四凤“说鬼”时插入了不必要的闪回,而没有将镜头对准四凤以表现其彼时彼刻的心理状态,导致“像拉洋片”(黄式宪)“看上去毫无意思”(苏叔阳)(曹其敬,1984;田小惠等,1986)。影片中这种“图解式”的镜头还有很多,这样的处理不仅中断了人物行动、妨碍全剧节奏,而且破坏了观众的想象、削弱了影片的艺术力量,导致“实不如虚”(晏学)(田泽民,1997;晏学等,1986)。
总的来说,电影《雷雨》在忠于原著上是成功的,而在电影化上是不成功的。但其作为早期由名著改编的电影之一,其引发的讨论远远超过了其本身的意义,一定程度上推动了中国电影改编理论和实践的发展。
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曹其敬.一次不成功的挑战——评影片《雷雨》[J].电影艺术,1984(07):53-55+59.
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孙道临.谈《雷雨》的电影改编[J].电影艺术,1984(07):44-52.
田小惠,夏虹,顾晓阳.银幕向舞台的挑战——《日出》《雷雨》《原野》影片座谈会(一)[J].电影艺术,1986(06):3-15.
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晏学,张逸生,张雁,吕恩,阙文,石羽,邵牧君.银幕向舞台的挑战——《日出》《雷雨》《原野》影片座谈会(二)[J].电影艺术,1986(07):34-43.
尤晓娟.宇宙,一口“残酷的井”——电影《雷雨》主题的一种解读[J].电影评介,2008(04):26-27.
宇丹.《雷雨》和《茶馆》的不同结构模式——兼论电影改编[J].思想战线,1987(02):61-65.
赵之成,戴光晰,杨薇,郑雪来,张雁,黄式宪,晏学,罗艺军,陈犀禾,余倩,刘诗兵,郑国恩.银幕向舞台的挑战——《日出》《雷雨》《原野》影片座谈会(三)[J].电影艺术,1986(08):28-41.
朱杰.“戏”的困境与“人”的魅力——论新时期曹禺剧作《雷雨》、《日出》的影视转换[J].湖北社会科学,2003(10):15-17.
五.跨文化知识点
1.中国传统家庭制度及其与新文化的冲突
正如曹禺在《<雷雨>序》中所承认的,《雷雨》的主题之一是“暴露大家庭的罪恶”。那么什么是“大家庭”呢?所谓的大家庭指的是封建家长制,它是封建统治的基础,是构成封建社会伦理的基石(孟宪范,2008)。这种封建家长制遵循着封建等级秩序和人伦道德,赋予封建家长以绝对的权威,禁锢个体的自由与情感。周家便是这样的大家庭,周朴园则是典型的封建家长。他致力于构建一个“最圆满,最有秩序的家庭”(台词),所谓的“秩序”指的是由“五伦”(即君臣、父子、夫妇、兄弟、朋友这五种人伦关系(3) )所编织的社会形态,在这样的社会中,每个人都必须在秩序里找到自己的位置,个体被消融。
到了20世纪初,在辛亥革命、新文化运动和“五四运动”思想解放的浪潮下,封建家长制受到了猛烈的抨击。接受了新文化、新思想的青年一代认识到封建礼教的“吃人”本质,反抗“万恶之源”的封建家长制,追求个性解放(孟宪范,2008)。繁漪便是旧制度的反抗者,她出身书香门第,接受过新式教育,却在“监狱似的周公馆,陪着一个阎王十八年”(台词)。她紧紧抓住周萍,与其说是追求爱情,不如说是“对周朴园的专横统治的一种反抗”(钱谷融,1986),是“逃离乃至反抗封建体制的一种象征”(陈奇佳,2013)。
【参考文献】
陈奇佳.因革命之名:重释《雷雨》的乱伦悲剧主题[J].中国现代文学研究丛刊,2013(01):85-94.
孟宪范.家庭:百年来的三次冲击及我们的选择[J].清华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2008(03):133-145+160.
钱谷融著.文学的魅力[M].济南:山东文艺出版社,1986.
2.过渡时期的“公馆”
电影的大部分情节发生在“监狱似的周公馆”(台词),这种公馆是社会过渡时期的历史产物。事实上,“公馆”一词古已有之,指的是用以接待宾客居住的公家建筑(4) ;清朝中后期,公馆的词义扩大,开始指外国公使馆和富人住宅;到了民国时期,公馆词义进一步扩大,成为“大众可息之地也”(复生)(转引自赵静,2018),象征着居住者的财富和地位;而新中国成立后,公馆逐渐淡出历史舞台。
民国是新中国的过渡时期,新旧思想激烈冲突,社会发生剧烈变革,此时的公馆不仅遍布当时的大中小城市,而且走入文学文本,代替古代府宅成为大家庭居住的主要承载形式,上演着一出出悲欢离合,见证着时代的兴衰枯荣。除了《雷雨》的周公馆外,民国时期的许多文学作品的场所也设置在公馆,如矛盾《子夜》中的吴公馆、巴金《家》中的高公馆、张爱玲《倾城之恋》中的白公馆……在当时的文学语境下,公馆是封建家长制的外在表现形式,是没落腐朽的生活的象征,是禁锢人性、压抑个性的“监狱”(黄德志,郁颖,2013;袁振声,1995)。
【参考文献】
黄德志,郁颖.张爱玲小说中的公馆意象分析[J].中国现代文学研究丛刊,2013(08):141-147.
袁振声.旨趣相异的艺术世界——析茅盾、巴金笔下的“吴公馆”与“高公馆”[J].南开学报,1995(02):17-22.
赵静.“公馆”之家——论小说《家》的文学表达[J].北京社会科学,2018(04):32-41.
六.讨论题
1.很多人批评电影的某些镜头只是对语言进行表面的“图解”。除了“评论文献综述”中介绍的“说鬼”这一段,你还能找出哪些“图解式”镜头?
2.周朴园和鲁侍萍的关系是全剧的一条主线,也是一条暗线。有人说周朴园对侍萍的怀念是真爱(比如保留着三十年前的陈设和关窗的习惯),有人则说是伪善。你怎么看?
3.曹禺本人非常喜欢繁漪这个角色,认为其是《雷雨》中最“雷雨的”,是值得赞美、怜悯和尊敬的。你如何看待繁漪这个角色?你喜欢她吗?为什么?
4.曹禺原剧中有序幕和尾声,但是电影和许多舞台剧一样直接将其删去。结合文本、作者经历及时代背景,你认为作者为什么要写序幕和尾声?而导演(们)为什么又将其删去?删掉序幕和尾声对全剧的主题、氛围有什么影响?
5.张艺谋导演的商业大片《满城尽带黄金甲》(2006年)也改编自曹禺的《雷雨》,但与孙道临的“忠于原著”相比,该影片做了很大胆的改编。你能找出两部电影中一一对应的角色吗?两个电影在主题上有什么不同?
Thunderstorm: From Twist of Beauty and Decay to
Clash of Wish and Desperation
Ma Jia
Thunderstorm (Léi yǔ雷雨, the premier of the play in 1934,
the release of first version of the adapted film in 1938)
Thunderstormwas written by the renowned playwright Cao Yu (1910-1996). Cao is regarded as the paramount dramatist of modern Chinese drama, “enthroned as China's Ibsen” according to The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Drama(Chen 2010,14). Actually, when Cao Yu wrote Thunderstorm in 1933, he was still an undergraduate student at Qinghua University. However, before attending university, he had a chance to study theatre programmes in Nankai Middle School. Thunderstorm was published in Literary Quarterly in January 1934. It was initially performed in Jinan, and then in Shanghai and Japan in 1935. It is recognized as one of the greatest modern plays (Huàjù) in China. Thunderstorm tells the story of the disastrous effects of rigid traditionalism and insincerity on the wealthy, modern, somewhat Westernized Zhou family. The plot of the play focuses on the Zhou family's incest and oppression and their devastating result, caused by its morally depraved and corrupt patriarch Zhou Puyuan.
In 1938, film director Fang Peilin produced Thunderstorm. It was released by the Shanghai Xinhua Film Company. In 1957, Thunderstorm, as a Hong Kong drama film directed by Ng Wui (Wu Hui in pinyin) and starring Bruce Lee, was released. Originally it used Cantonese, but later on in the 1970s, when Mandarin films dominated Hong Kong cinema, it was dubbed into Mandarin for re⁃release. The whole film (in Cantonese) can be watched on YouTube through the resource of the Bruce Lee HKF Archive. A few positive comments remain online (for instance in Letterboxd.com) for this Bruce Lee version of Thunderstorm. In 1961, Zhu Shilin directed Thunderstorm, and it was released by the Hong Kong Phoenix Film Company. In 1984, the well⁃known Chinese actor Sun Daolin directed his version of Thunderstorm in Shanghai. He also played the main character, Zhou Puyuan in the film. In 1995, director Ho Yi produced anther Cantonese film version of Thunderstorm. Two years later, a TV series of Thunderstorm was released. On the other hand, Zhang Yimou's film Curse of the Golden Flower (Mǎn chéng jǐn dài huángjīn jiǎ满城尽带黄金甲) (2006) is based on the play Thunderstorm but is set in the imperial court of the Five Dynasties. Recently, a Shanghai opera film adaption of Thunderstorm hit Chinese mainland theaters on Aug. 27, 2019. This latest version of the adapted film Thunderstorm was also screened at the 15th Chinese American Film Festival on November 17, 2019. It is interesting to note that an ad from the University of Iceland recommended the film Thunderstorm as its representative on Chinese Movie Day, Sept. 11, 2019. This event reminds us that Thunderstorm as an adapted film is still remembered by foreign audience.
“Two Emancipated Phaedras: Chou Fan⁃yi and Abbie Putnam as Social Rebels” written by Joseph S. M. Lau is the most comprehensive comparative study of the two characters, one in Thunderstorm and the other in Desire Under the Elms (Eugene O'Neill), among the studies of Cao Yu's dramatic writing. Phaedra in the title of the article is a character in Greek mythology and a Cretan princess. One version of the story of Phaedra describes how Phaedra lied to Theseus that Hippolytus, his son, had raped her. Theseus killed his son, and Phaedra then killed herself out of regret and guilt. Lau uses this version of Phaedra to compare the tragedies of Zhou Fanyi in Thunderstorm with Abbie Putnam in Desire Under the Elms. Researches show that O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms was inspired by the myth of Phaedra, Hippolytus, and Theseus.
At the beginning of the article, Lau points out that although Cao Yu has enjoyed enduring fame from Thunderstorm which touches upon two major social problems in 1930s— “a socialist concern for the plight of the workers under capitalist exploitation, and an individual effort to assert personal freedom and happiness under the crippling weight of patriarchal society” (Lau 1966, 699), the playwright always wished to be seen as a tragic writer who followed a classic order—passion and fate drawn from classical Greek tragic dramas. From this point of view, Lau starts to make comparisons between Zhou Fanyi and Abbie Putnam to demonstrate their similarities:“Of all the characters in Thunderstorm, Chou Fanyi has perhaps the closest resemblance to the traditional tragic hero, for, like Abbie Putnam in O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms, she is essentially a woman of passion, though its nature and manner they react to it are characteristically different. And like Abbie, Fanyi has her own free will, in other words, as far as their personal destinies are connected, they have at least enough freedom to determine their own fates” (Lau 1966, 700).
In the next part of the essay, Lau tries to explore the differences between Fanyi and Abbie's most tragic kinship: “They both cherish an incestuous passion for their stepsons. But the circumstances under which they become involved are different. Under Fan⁃yi, who has been ‘tricked into the Chou family,’ Abbie Putnam has a mind and a body of her own” (Lau 1966, 701). Lau therefore extends this exploration in further detail by analyzing the different situations of their marriages: Unlike Fanyi, Abbie marries Cabot as a bargain and she obtains self—will but as for Fanyi, she is prepared to resign herself to a life of loneliness until out of the blue, her stepson Zhou Ping appears. In addition, Lau also attributes Abbie and Fanyi's motive to passion, the contradiction of lust and love, and their inevitable consequences in similar social contexts, namely, an American society dominated by Puritanism and China's still traditional patriarchal society.While Lau notes that Abbie is willing to pay the price for social responsibility and accept the punishment due to her temptation to sin—her liaison with Eben and smothering the baby, he also points out that Fanyi, contrary to Abbie's willingness, resists following established morality.
Despite his overwhelmingly positive assessment of Thunderstorm and his admiration for Cao Yu's talent for his successful creation based on Greek tragedy, Lau nevertheless criticizes Cao Yu's obvious flaws in the play. For instance, he points out that although it is understandable that Cao Yu made Fanyi a model for oppressed women of that era, unfortunately, Fanyi “loses as a character in a drama laboring to impart the dignity of a Greek tragedy (Lau 1966, 707)”. This failure comes from the playwright who “has confused the unjust with the tragic, hysteria with heroine” (p.708).
In conclusion, Lau states that “On the surface, she [Fanyi] seems to have radiated defiance of Abbie Putnam in her claim for moral autonomy. Upon closer examination, however, two basic points of difference between these two women emerge. ... By submitting herself to law for smothering the baby, Abbie has demonstrated in unequivocal terms her respect for the fundamentals of social order. Fanyi, however, recognizes neither such bond nor the need for them; she desecrates her only tie to humanity by using her son, Chou Ch'ung, as an instrument for revenge” (p.710). Lau's statement seems to indicate that, somehow, he regards Fanyi as a not⁃very⁃successful character compared to Abbie, because the former's revenge and defiance will eventually lead nowhere.
In the article “Ts'ao Yu: Dramatist in Communist China”,the authors Walter J. and Ruth I. Meserve explore how the two Greek themes—sin and love as well as the Greek concept of fate work in Thunderstorm: “The influence of the Greek drama upon Thunderstorm is evident in various ways. Two Greek themes are dramatized: the sins of the past visited upon the present (the House of Atreus), and the determined love of a woman for her stepson (Phaedra ⁃ Hippolytus). Both themes are resolved as they were by the Greek dramatists. Revelations of the past bring horror and disaster to the present unknown generation while those who started the action are relentlessly pursued. Chou Pu⁃yuan is a stern and unyielding character unable to understand or satisfy the passion of Fan⁃yi, who is stubbornly and pathetically driven to her stepson. ... Apparent from the opening scenes, the role of fate incorporates both the Oriental idea of fated people and the Greek theory of pursuing furies (W.and R.Meserve 1968, 116).
The two authors, however, change their tones when they talk about the commentaries on Thunderstorm from so⁃called “communist critic” after 1949. They believe that those critics' attitudes and actions change the original purpose and the broad vision of Thunderstorm in order to make the play more satisfying to the ideology and propaganda of the authorities. Finally, W. and R. Meserve fairly point out that even “communist critics” realize the importance of artistic features of Thunderstorm and have tried to keep them originally as much as they can but interpret their effects differently.
The article“Cao Yu's The Thunderstorm: Translation and Introduction” by Genevieve Andreas,is a thesis which contains two parts. In the introductory part, the author explores the close relationship between the characters in Thunderstorm and its representative of the time. She states that “The Thunderstorm's characters are representative of the era in which it was written, and their portrayal is an apolitical commentary on contemporary society” (Andreas 2010,10). After analyzing the various complicated conflicts and tensions among the characters, the author concludes that“By using the trappings of modern society, which was rapidly Westernizing, especially among the young and educated, the wealthy, and those living on the Eastern seaboard, Cao Yu emphasizes that the problems portrayed in the play are still extant. This is entirely in line with the goals of the May Fourth movement, the huaju movement, and the general purpose shared by both: use what is good of the West to improve what is good of the East” (Andreas 2010, 11-12).
In a recent article, Feng Lan compares the adapted film with the original play from the point of view of so⁃called “Politico⁃Economic Conditions of Adaptive Appropriation”. Feng emphasizes that in order to please his audience, Zhang keeps the Greek theme of passion and fate but eliminates all the ideological articulation. Furthermore, the author states in fact that Cao Yu may have had to, or have been willing to, echo the advanced Chinese intellectuals' stance overwhelmingly opposing the ancient patriarchal system and unjust capitalism just as Zhang Yimou had chosen: “By reversing the ideological pursuit of the source work, Zhang has transformed a play resisting the newly emerging capitalist system in the China of the 1920s⁃1930s into a commercial movie courting the capitalist system that has been revitalized in post⁃Mao China. Moreover, the differences in terms of content between Cao's play and Zhang's film reflect profound changes in time regarding each age's understanding of not only the nature and function of artistic works but also the social obligations of the creative artist” (Feng, 2019).
After a brief introduction to Thunderstorm from its original play to different versions of the adapted film, followed byan explanation and analysis of four articles onthis classic work, we can reach our conclusions. Except for Zhang Yimou's Curse of the Golden Flower, all other adapted films from the 1930s until the present, keep the story, plots, main characters and theme almost the same as in the original play, which comes from the two reasons: firstly, because the play's performance was so successful and beyond expectation—“caught public enthusiasm wherever they were played”—the smart thing for the film directors to do was to produce a film covering the original story as it was. Secondly, since the most thrilling and attractive part of the play was its shocking dramatic conflicts and the tragic ending, the adapted film producers were willing to keep them rather than change them in order to draw new audiences. The only major difference between the play and the adapted films is that the latter usually try to hire famous movie stars to play the main characters, such as Bruce Lee in 1957's version of Thunderstorm, and Sun Donglin in his own version of the film in 1984, not to mention the stars who came together in a crowd in Zhang Yimou's Curse of the Golden Flower. In this case, it is understandable that the valuable articles or reviews mostly focus on the play of Thunderstorm instead of the adapted films. Among the four articles above, scholars and critics explore Thunderstorm's artistic characteristics and achievements from different perspectives. While Lau uses Phaedra from Greek mythology to compare the tragedies of Zhou Fanyi with Abbie Putnamin Desire Under the Elms,Walter J. and Ruth I. Meserve explore how the two Greek themes, sin and love as well as the Greek concept of fate work, in Thunderstorm.Meanwhile, Andreas focuses on the close relationship between the characters in the play and its representative of the time, but what Feng has done is to explain why Cao Yu and Zhang Yimou adopted similar strategies under different politico⁃economic circumstances in order to please their audiences. As a sensitive artist in the turbulent China of the 1930s, Cao Yu was always struggling with the two worlds—the real world and the ideal world. Therefore, pursuing justice and freedom in order to replace hypocritical Confucianism and corrupt capitalism exists in parallel with concerning/wondering mankind's fate through a mysterious world of philosophy. In a word, although the era which created Thunderstorm is far away from us, the themes of the play (or film) such as the uncertainty of human life, love and hatred, sin and fate, twists of beauty and decay, or clash of desire and desperation are still relevant and echo reality.
Discussion Questions
1.There is no doubt that Zhang Yimou's Curse of the Golden Flower was very successful at the box office, but do you think its commercial success reflectsan equal achievement from an artistic point of view?
2.How do you think of the importance of the prologue and epilogue in Thunderstorm? Why were they always ignored, intentionally or unintentionally, either on the stage or in the adapted films?
3.Please provide your opinions on the influences from Western dramatists, including the ancient Greeks, Shakespeare, Ibsen, Chekhov and O'Neill.
4.Do you agree or disagree with the conclusion in this review that “although the era which created Thunderstorm is far away from us, the themes of the play (or film) such as the uncertainty of human life, love and hatred, sin and fate, twists of beauty and decay, or clash of desire and desperation are still relevant and echo reality”?
References
1.Bruce Lee HKF Archive. 1957. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qm0z3X
HN3G4
2.Hsia, C. T. 1961 & 1971.A History of Modern Chinese Fiction. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
3.Lau, Joseph S. M. 1966. “Two Emancipated Phaedras: Chou Fan⁃yi and Abbie Putnam as Social Rebels” in Asian Studies (Vol.25, pp.699-711; published by the Association for Asian Studies).
4.Meserve, Walter J. and Ruth I. 1968. “Ts'ao Yu: Dramatist in Communist China” in Comparative Drama (Vol. 2, No. 2; pp. 115-121).
5.Andreas, Genevieve. 2010. “Cao Yu's The Thunderstorm: Translation and Introduction”, Bi⁃College (Haverford and Bryn Mawr Colleges),Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures. http://hdl.handle.net/10066/5275
6. Chen, Xiaomei, 2010. The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Drama. New York: Columbia University Press.
7.University of Iceland. 2019. 5. https://english.hi.is/events/chinese_movie_day_thunderstorm
8.Chinese American Film Festival. 2019. https://cafilmfestival.com/en/screening⁃
schedule/
9.Letterboxd. 2020. https://letterboxd.com/film/thunderstorm⁃1957/reviews/by/
added/
(1) 前两次分别在1938年(方沛霖导演)和1961年(朱石麟导演)。
(2) 其余两部为《原野》和《日出》。
(3) “人伦”一词最早由孟子提出。孟子认为,理想的人伦关系为“父子有亲,君臣有义,夫妇有别,长幼有序,朋友有信”(《孟子·滕文公上》)。这是处理人与人之间关系的道德准则,是传统社会中维持封建等级秩序的背后支柱(庄兰兰,2013)。
(4) “《正义》曰:礼有公馆、私馆,公馆者公家筑为别馆以舍客也”(汉·毛亨)(转引自赵静,2018)。