结 语
武装冲突期间对考古类遗址与博物馆进行盗窃与抢劫已超过战火的直接破坏,成为武装冲突期间文化财产面临的主要威胁。针对这一问题,国际社会一致反对战争期间对文化遗产的非法掠夺,并且规定此类文化遗产应该在战后归还给原属国。此类国家实践,都充分证明了一项新的国际习惯规则正在形成。这项新的国际习惯法规定占领国须防止文化财产从被占领土非法输出,并且须将非法输出的财产返还被占领土的主管当局。但是需要承认的是,即便存在大量的国家实践支持该拟议的习惯规则,但“二战”期间,俄罗斯与德国关于“保留文化财产作为战争赔偿”,中日之前关于战争赔偿等问题,都与拟议的国际习惯规则存在冲突,因而也对该项国际习惯规则是否能够最终确立带来了不确定性。鉴于此,虽然所拟议的国际习惯规则正在形成中,但对于其是否能最终得以确立,则需要更多的国家实践来证明。
(本文编辑:史欣媛)
Restitution of Cultural Property Looted in Armed Conflicts and Wars:An Analysis of an Emerging Customary Rule
Zhong Hui
Abstract:The theft and looting of archaeological sites and museums during armed conflicts has outstripped the direct destruction,becoming a major threat to the protection of cultural property.In response to this problem,the international community has been opposed to the art looting during armed conflicts,in particular by drafting and amending international and national laws to support the restitution of cultural property.Based on such wide state practice,this paper argues that a new customary rule is emerging and will likely come into existence in the future.The proposed customary rule recognizes that cultural property looted during armed conflicts and wars should be returned to the competent authorities of the occupied territory.
Key Words:Cultural Property;Restitution;Armed Conflicts;Customary International Law
【注释】
[1]钟慧,女,澳大利亚昆士兰大学法学博士,厦门大学南海研究院助理教授。
[2]Emma Henderson,Syria’s Six Unesco World Heritage Sites All Damaged or Destroyed during Civil War,https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrias-six-unesco-world-heritage-sites-all-damaged-or-destroyed-during-civil-war-a6934026.html,下载日期:2018年7月1日。
[3]学术界对文化财产(cultural property)、文化遗产(cultural heritage)、文化物品(cultural object),以及返还(restitution、return和recovery)的定义和区别都有深入的分析。See Lyndel Prott and Patrick O’Keefe,Cultural Heritage or Cultural Property?,International Journal of Cultural Property,Vol.1,1992,pp.307-320;Manlio Frigo,Cultural Property v.Cultural Heritage:A Battle of Concepts in International Law?,International Review of the Red Cross,Vol.86,2004,pp.367-373;Wojciech Kowalski,Types of Claims for Recovery of Lost Cultural Property,Museum International,Vol.57,2005,pp.85-102.
[4]Hui Zhong,China,Cultural Heritage and International Law,Routledge,2017.
[5]Lynn H.Nicholas,The Rape of Europa:The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War,Vintage,1995.
[6]Marina Lostal,International Cultural Heritage Law in Armed Conflict:Case Studies of Syria,Libya,Mali,the Invasion of Iraq,and the Buddhas of Bamiyan,Cambridge University Press,2017.
[7]Malcolm N.Shaw,International Law,Cambridge University Press,2014,p.57.
[8]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005.
[9]These norms include a general prohibition of the use of non-defensive force by one state against another(See,e.g.,Nicaragua Case,1986 I.C.J.Rep.14,98-101,para.187-190;Wall Advisory Opinion,2004 I.C.J.Rep.136,171,para.87.),states’right of self-defence against armed attacks by other states[See Nicaragua Case,1986 I.C.J.Rep.14,94,para.176(holding that the“right of self-defence”is“of a customary nature”],and a principle resolving disputes between states peacefully[See Nicaragua Case,1986 I.C.J.Rep.14,145,para.290(affirming that the“principle that the parties to any dispute...should seek a solution by peaceful means”has the status of customary law)].
[10]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005,pp.127-130.
[11]North Sea Continental Shelf Cases,1969 I.C.J.Rep.43,para.74.
[12]Continental Shelf Case(Libya v.Malta),1985 I.C.J.Rep.13,33,para.27.
[13]Ian Brownlie and James Crawford,Brownlie’s Principles of Public International Law,Oxford University Press,2012,pp.7-8;Mark E.Villiger,Customary International Law and Treaties:A Manual on the Theory and Practice of the Interrelation of Sources,Kluwer Law International,1997,pp.167-192.
[14]Jack L.Goldsmith and Eric A.Posner,The Limits of International Law,Oxford University Press,2005,p.24.
[15]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005,p.Ⅺⅱ.
[16]North Sea Continental Shelf Cases,1969 I.C.J.Rep.43,para.74.
[17]Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion,1996 I.C.J.Rep.226,263(holding that“Nor can[the Court]ignore that practice referred to as‘policy of deterrence’,to which an appreciable section of the international community adhered for many years.”)Peter Malanczuk and Michael Barton Akehurst,Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law,Routledge,1997,p.42.
[18]Asylum Case(Colombia v.Peru),1950 I.C.J.Rep.266,para.276-277.
[19]Fisheries Case(U.K.v.Norway),1951 I.C.J.Rep.131.
[20]International Committee of the Red Cross,Assessment of Customary International Law,https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_in_asofcuin,下载日期:2018年7月1日;Malcolm N.Shaw,International Law,Cambridge University Press,2014,p.57;Jörg Kammerhofer,Uncertainty in the Formal Sources of International Law:Customary International Law and Some of Its Problems,European Journal of International Law,Vol.15,2004,p.290.
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[22]Anthony A.D’Amato,The Concept of Custom in International Law,Cornell U-niversity Press,1971,p.88;Peter Malanczuk and Michael Barton Akehurst,Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law,Routledge,1997,p.28.
[23]Ian Brownlie and James Crawford,Brownlie’s Principles of Public International Law,Oxford University Press,2012,pp.6-7;Malcolm N.Shaw,International Law,Cambridge University Press,2014,p.58.
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[26]1907年《海牙公约》第27条和第56条。对于文化遗产的部分,1907年版本在1899年的基础上稍作了修改。
[27]Jiri Toman,The Hague Convention—A Decisive Step Taken by the International Community,Museum International,Vol.57,2005,p.7.
[28]《伦敦宣言》第3段。
[29]Lyndel Prott,The History and Development of Processes for the Recovery of Cultural Heritage,Witnesses to History,Vol 13,2008,p.5.
[30]《同盟国及其参与国对意大利的和平条约》第12条和第37条。
[31]David A.Meyer,The 1954 Hague Cultural Property Convention and Its Emergence into Customary International Law,Boston University International Law Journal,Vol.11,1993;Wayne Sandholtz,The Iraqi National Museum and International Law:A Duty to Protect,Columbia Journal Transnational Law,Vol.44,2005,p.238.
[32]《海牙公约》第8条。
[33]《第二议定书》第4章“刑事责任与管辖权”。
[34]《海牙公约》第4条第2款。(https://www.daowen.com)
[35]军事必要的制约是《海牙公约》备受争议的条款之一,因为公约并没有对军事必要的含义进行界定,也没有对援引军事必要条款设立具体的最低标准,亦未规定在实践中判定援引该条款是否正当的权利主体,从而不可避免地对公约实现其宗旨造成了隐患。
[36]《第一议定书》第1条第1款。
[37]《前南斯拉夫国际法庭规约》第3(d)条。
[38]联合国教科文组织:《〈1954年关于在武装冲突情况下保护文化财产的海牙公约〉及其1954年和1999年两项议定书的执行报告 》,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001407/140792c.pdf,下载日期:2018年7月3日。
[39]前南问题国际法庭,检察官诉蒂霍米尔·布拉斯基奇,判决书,2000年3月3日,第185段。
[40]前南问题国际法庭,检察官诉迪里奥·科尔迪奇和马里奥·切尔凯兹,判决书,2001年2月26日,第354~362段。
[41]《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第8(2)(b)(九)条和第8(2)(e)(四)条。
[42]1954年《海牙公约》通篇仅有一个条文涉及制裁,亦即第28条,依之,“各缔约国承允于其普通刑事管辖权范围内采取必要步骤,以对违反或唆使违反本公约的人,不问其国籍,进行起诉并施以刑事或纪律制裁”。显而易见,该条规定过于简单、概括,不仅没有规定哪些行为应受到制裁,也没有对管辖问题作具体规定,而从公约的实践来看,鲜有缔约国在其普通刑事管辖系统内对违反公约的行为作出专门规定。因此,《海牙公约》第28条的规定象征意义远大于实际意义。
[43]《海牙公约》第15条第(1)款第(e)项。
[44]《第二议定书》第15条第(2)款。
[45]艾哈迈德·法基·迈赫迪(Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi)是马里极端“圣战”头目之一,因于2012年蓄意攻击通布图的宗教和历史建筑,被判犯有战争罪,判处有期徒刑9年。而在此之前,国际刑事法庭从未正式判过毁坏文化遗产这一罪名,迈赫迪一案就此成了第一例。
[46]联合国安理会第661(1990)号决议第3条第(a)款决定“所有国家均应组织原产于伊拉克或科威特并在本决议通过之日后出口的任何商品和产品输入其境内”。
[47]联合国安理会第1483(2003)号决议第7条。
[48]Jiri Toman,Cultural Property in War:Improvement in Protection Commentary on the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict,UNESCO Publishing,2009.
[49]《第一议定书》第1条第3款。
[50]《第一议定书》第1条第4款。
[51]《第一议定书》第1条第5款。
[52]《国际统一私法协会公约》第4条。
[53]《国际统一私法协会公约》第5条第(1)款。
[54]《国际统一私法协会公约》第5条第(3)款。
[55]《国际统一私法协会公约》第5条第(5)款。
[56]Marc-AndréRenold,Cross-Border Restitution Claims of Art Looted in Armed Conflicts and Wars and Alternatives to Court Litigations,http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556947/IPOL_STU(2016)556947_EN.pdf,下载日期:2018年7月4日。
[57]US Committee of the Blue Shield,The 1954 Hague Convention,http://uscbs.org/1954-hague-convention.html,下载日期:2018年7月4日。
[58]The President of the United States,The Hague Convention and the Hague Protocol,https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CDOC-106tdoc1/html/CDOC-106tdoc1.htm,下载日期:2018年7月4日。
[59]Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs,Memorandum of Understanding(MOU),to Protect Categories of Archaeological Material from the Paleolithic Period through the Tang Dynasty,and Monumental Sculpture and Wall Art at Least 250 Years Old,http://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center/international-cultural-propertyprotection/bilateral-agreements/china,下载日期:2018年6月26日。
[60]Matthew R.Hoffman,Cultural Pragmatism:A New Approach to the International Movement of Antiquities,Iowa Law Review,Vol.95,2010,pp.680-682;Bilateral Agreements,For the List of Emergency Actions,Agreements,and Designated Lists of Objects Subject to Import Restrictions,http://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritagecenter/cultural-property-protection/bilateral-agreements,下载日期:2018年6月26日。
[61]UK Government,Cultural Property(Armed Conflicts)Bill,http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/6/contents/enacted/data.htm,下载日期:2018年6月20日。
[62]Section 1 of Act Implementing the Convention of 14 May 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict,http://www.kulturgutschutzdeutschland.de/Shared Docs/ExterneLinks/EN/Gesetze_en/KultgSch Konv AG_en.pdf;jsessionid=40024BC88161857C417ADAB4679C55D2.1_cid350?__blob=publicationFile,下载日期:2018年6月20日。
[63]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005,p.809.
[64]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005,p.809.
[65]Act of 8 March 2007 containing rules on the taking into custody of cultural property from an occupied territory during an armed conflict and for the initiation of proceedings for the return of such property,http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/netherlands/netherlands_actmarch2007_engtof.pdf,下载日期:2018年5月4日;Explanatory Memorandum,http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/netherlands/netherlands_memo_returnoccupiedterritory_engtof.pdf,下载日期:2018年5月4日。
[66]Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus v Lans,Rotterdam Civil Court,44053 HAZ 95/2403,4 February 1999.
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[70]《关于发生武装冲突、灾害和紧急情况时保护文物的联邦法》第6条。
[71]Jane Perlez and Bree Feng,Chinese Group Calls on Japan to Hand Over Tang-Era Stele,http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/08/21/chinese-group-calls-on-japan-tohand-over-tang-era-stele/,下载日期:2018年6月4日。
[72]Hui Zhong,Can Chinese Individuals Request the Restitution of Chinese Cultural Relics in Japan?:A Revisit under International Law,Journal of East Asia&International Law,Vol.10,2017.
[73]《被转移的文化财产法案》第458段。
[74]Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,Customary International Humanitarian Law,Volume 1:Rules,Cambridge University Press,2005,p.138.
[75]红十字国际委员会:《也门:战火逼近,古城的伊斯兰建筑面临危险》,http://www.icrc.org/zh/document/yemen-citys-architectural-connection-islam-risk-fighting-nears,下载日期:2018年6月4日。