注释
引 言
[1] Ann Mcllroy,“Teenager Sharon Moalem Suspected His Grandfather's Alzheimer's Was Linked to a Buildup of Iron in His Brain.Years Later,He Proved It,”Globe and Mail,January 31,2004.
[2] 此处提到的为血色素沉积症进行的血检包含以下项目:血清总铁结合力(TIBC)、血清铁(serun iron)、铁蛋白(ferritin)和运铁蛋白饱和度(transterrin saturation)。也可使用商业基因测试(很贵很贵)来检测血色素沉积症突变基因,不过我个人并不推荐这类基因检测,除非有预防个体基因歧视的强有力法规出台。
[3] E.R.Stiehm.2006.Disease versus disease:how one disease may ameliorate another.Pediatrics 117(1):184-191;Randolph M.Nesse and George C.Williams,“Evolution and the Origins of Disease,”Scientific American,November 1998;R.M.Nesse.2001.On the difficulty of defining disease:a Darwinian perspective.Med Health Care Philos 4(1):37-46;E.E.Harris and A.A.Malyango.2005.Evolutionary explanations in medical and health profession courses:are you answering your students’“why”questions?BMC Med Educ 5(1):16.
[4] S.R.Gill,M.Pop,R.T.Deboy,et al.2006.Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome.Science 312(5778):1355-1359.
[5] 参见pages 183-198 in Lenny Moss,What Genes Can't Do(Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,2003);pages 8-47 in Michael Morange,The Misunderstood Gene(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,2001);H.Pearson.2006.Genetics:what is a gene?Nature 441(7092):398-401。
第1章 走出补铁的误区
[1] Kathleen Johnston Jarboe,“Baltimore Business Executive Runs for His Life and Lives of Others,”The Daily Record,April 22,2005.关于血色素沉积症,有一本很棒的索引著作C.D.Garrison,Iron Disorders Institute,The Iron Disorders Institute Guide to Hemochromatosis(Nashville,TN:Cumberland House,2001)。观看NBC(美国全国广播公司)对阿兰的专访,请浏览www,irondisorders.org/Aran/。
[2] F.M.Morel and N.M.Price.2003.The biogeochemical cycles of trace metals in the oceans.Science 300(5621):944-947;D.J.Erickson Ⅲ and J.L.Hernandez.2003.Atmospheric iron delivery and surface ocean biological activity in the Southern Ocean and Patagonian region.GeoPhys Res Lett 30(12):1609-1612;J.H.Martin,K.H.Coale,K.S.Johnson,et al.2002.Testing the iron hypothesis in ecosystems of the equatorial Pacific Ocean,Nature 371:123-129;Richard Monastersky,“Iron versus the Greenhouse,”Science News,September 30,1995;Charles Graeber,“Dumping Iron,”Wired,November 2000.
[3] 此部分内容观点直接来源于E.D.Weinberg and C.D.Garrison,Exposing the Hidden Dangers of Iron:What Every Medical Professional Should Know about the Impact of Iron on the Disease Process(Nashville,TN:Cumberland House,2004)。
[4] N.E.Cantor,In the Wake of the Plague:The Black Death and the World It Made(New York:Perennial/HarperCollins,2002);J.Kelly,The Great Mortality:An Intimate History of the Black Death,the Most Devastating Plague of All Time(New York:HarperCollins,2005).
[5] Gabriele de'Mussi,Istoria de morbo siue mortalitate que fuit de 1348,page 76 in G.Deaux,The Black Death,1347(New York:Weybright and Talley,1969).欲获知更多以瘟疫作为文学母题的内容,可参见www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/de_mussi.shtml。
[6] 关于犹太逾越节仪式与瘟疫预防之间可能的关联,有趣的描述可参见M.J.Blaser.1998.Passover and plague.Perspect Biol Med 41(2):243-256。
[7] Agnolo di Tura,Seina Chronicle,1354,pages 13-14 in W.M.Bowsky,The Black Death:A Turning Point in History(New York:Holt,1971).
[8] 在最近发生的一些瘟疫案例中,被感染的男女比例大致持平,这可能得益于饮食的改进,食用谷物和加工食品都有助于补铁,参见S.R.Ell.1985.Iron in two seventeenth-century plague epidemics.J Interdiscip Hist 15(3):445-457,该文研究了黑死病的流行病学,以及年轻人最易受感染的问题。
[9] 格雷厄姆·特威格(Graham Twigg)有一篇很棒的文章,附有伦敦大瘟疫期间的教会堂区地图,可浏览www.history.ac.uk/cmh/epitwig.html,该文最早发表于Plague in London:Spatial and Temporal Aspects ofMortality,in Epidemic Disease in London,ed.J.A.I.Champion,Centre for Metropolitan History Working Papers Series,No.1(1993)。
[10] 关于血色素沉积症与瘟疫之间的可能关联,相关原始论文可参见S.Moalem,M.E.Percy,T.P.Kruck,and R.R.Gelbart.2002.Epidemic pathogenic selection:an explanation for hereditary hemochromatosis?Med Hypotheses 59(3):325-329。关于铁在细菌感染中的重要性,更多信息可参见S.Moalem,E.D.Weinberg,and M.E.Percy.2004.Hemochromatosis and the enigma of misplaced iron:implications for infectious disease and survival.Biometals 17(2):135-139
[11] 研究者正打算直接测试血色素沉积症患者巨噬细胞的战斗能力,不过在最近的一项研究中,研究者发现,导致结核的微生物结核杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis)更难于从血色素沉积症患者的细胞中获取铁元素。既然绝大多数病原菌(比如被认为引发了黑死病的鼠疫杆菌)和真菌的传染需要依靠铁,所以研究者认为,这可能是让血色素沉积症突变在西欧如此普遍的因素。以下文献涉及文中提到的若干实验:O.Olakanmi,L.S.Schlesinger,and B.E.Britigan.2006.Hereditary hemochromatosis results in decreased iron acquisition and growth by Mycobacterium tuberculosis with human macrophages.J Leokoc Biol(Epub October 12,2006,ahead of print);O.Olakanmi,S.Schlesinger,A.Ahmed,and B.E.Britigan.2002.Intraphagosomal Mycobacterium tuberculosis acquires iron from both extracellular transferrin and intracellular iron pools:impact of interferon-gamma and hemochromatosis.J Biol Chem 277(51):49727-49734。千万不要以为血色素沉积症患者就对传染病完全免疫。有一种微生物能对患者造成巨大损伤,名叫创伤弧菌(vibrio vulnificus)。这种微生物常见于海鲜和海水中,它用一种独特的方式获取铁,让血色素沉积症患者更加容易受感染。关于创伤弧菌的更多内容,可参见J.J.Bullen,P.B.Spalding,C.G.Ward,and J.M.Gutteridge.1991.Hemochromatosis,iron and septicemia caused by Vibrio vulnificus.Arch Intern Med 151(8):1606-1609。想了解更多关于弧菌的有趣事实,可参考CDC(疾病控制与预防中心)和FDA(食品及药物管理局)网站www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/vibriovulnificus_g.htm;www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap 10.html。
[12] 关于血色素沉积症起源问题的更多讨论可参见N.Milman and P.Pedersen.2003.Evidence that the Cys282Tyr mutation of the HFE gene originated from a population in Southern Scandinavia and spread with the Vikings.Clin Genet 64(1):36-47;A.Pietrangelo.2004.Hereditary hemochromatosis—a new look at an old disease.N Engl J Med 350(23):2383-2397:G.Lucotte and F.Dieterlen.2003.A European allele map of the C282Y mutation of hemochromatosis:Celtic versus Viking origin of the mutation?Blood Cells MolDis 31(2):262-267。
[13] 关于古代放血疗法的趣味科学读物,可参见chapter 6,“A Bloody Good Remedy,”in R.S.Root-Bernstein and M.Root Bernstein,Honey,Mud,Maggots,and Other Medical Marvels:The Science behind Folk Remedies and Old Wives'Tales(Boston:Houghton Miffin,1997);还有R.J.Weinberg,S.R.Ell,and E.D.Weinberg.1986.Blood-letting,iron homeostasis,and human health.Med Hypotheses 21(4):441-443.关于放血疗法的完整历史,可参考G.R.Seigworth,1980.Bloodletting over the centuries,N Y State J Med 80(13):2022-2028。想看一看美国独立战争时期外科医生放血疗法的工具,可参见http://americanhistory.si.edu/militaryhistory/exhibition/flash.html?path=1.3.r_70。想了解更多关于放血疗法与退烧的内容,可参见N.W.Kasting,1990.A rationale for centuries of therapeutic bloodletting:antipyretic therapy for febrile diseases.Perspect Biol Med 33(4):509-516。
[14] J.Murray,A.B.Murray,M.B.Murray,and C.J.Murray.1978.The adverse effect of iron repletion on the course of certain infections.Br Med J 2(6145):1113-1115;R.J.Cantwell.1972.Iron deficiency anemia of infancy:some clinical principles illustrated by the response of Maori infants to neonatal parenteral iron administration.Clin Pediatr(Phila)11(8):443-449;S.S.Amon,K.Damus,B.Kompson,et al.1982.Protective role of human milk against sudden death from infant botulism.JPediatr 100(4):568-573.
第2章 血糖里隐藏的秘密
[1] 欲获取最新的全球糖尿病数据,可参见世界卫生组织官方网站www.who.int
[2] 关于古代中医的实践与理念的历史概述,可参见J.Veith and Ti Huang,The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine(Berkeley:University of California Press,1966);关于古代中医在当代中国的实践概述,可参见V.Scheid,Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China:Plurality and Synthesis(Durham,NC:Duke University Press,2002)。
[3] 更多关于美国西南部的皮马印第安人的信息,可参见网站diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/pima/obesity/obesity.htm。关于皮马印第安人健康状况的个人数据,参见G.P.Nabhan,Why Some Like It Hot:Food,Genes,and Cultural Diversity(Washington.DC:Island Press/Shearwater Books,2004)。
[4] 有两本很棒的书讨论这个话题:B.M.Fagan,The Little Ice Age:How Climate Made History,1300-1850(New York:Basic Books,2000),中文译本有(美)布莱恩·费根《小冰期》,苏静涛译,浙江大学出版社,2013年;T.F.Flannery,The Weather Makers:How Man Is Changing the Climate and What It Means for Life on Earth(New York:Atlantic Monthly Press,2005),中文译本有(美)蒂姆·富兰纳瑞《是你,制造了天气》,越家康译,人民文学出版社,2010年。
[5] S.Bondevik,J.Mangerud,H.H.Birks,et al.2006.Changes in North Atlantic radiocarbon reservoir ages during the Allerod and Younger Dryas.Science 312(5779):1514-1517;National Research Council(U.S.),Committee on Abrupt Climate Change,Abrupt Climate Change:Inevitable Surprises(Washington,DC:National Academies Press,2002);L.Tarasov and W.R.Peltier.2005.Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas cold reversal.Nature 435(7042):662-665;T.Correge,M.K.Gagan,J.W.Beck,et al.2004.Interdecadal variation in the extent of South Pacific tropical waters during the Younger Dryas event.Nature 428(6986):927-929;C.Singer,J.Shulmeister,and B.McLea.1998.Evidence against a significant Younger Dryas cooling event in New Zealand.Science 281(5378):812-814;Richard B.Alley,“Abrupt Climate Change,”Scientific American,November 2004.
[6] S.R.Weart,The Discovery of Global Warming(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,2003)。欲了解更多关于大西洋洋流中断带来的影响,可参见Fred Pearce,“Faltering CurrentsTrigger Freeze Fear,”New Scientist,December 3,2005。
[7] R.B.Alley,The Two-Mile Time Machine:Ice Cores,Abrupt Climate Change,and Our Future(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2000).
[8] C.Gamble,W.Davies,P.Pettitt,and M.Richards.2004.Climate change and evolving human diversity in Europe during the last glacial.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 359(1442):243-253;discussion 253-254.
[9] Tom Verducci,“New Details Fuel Controversy Surrounding Williams'Remains,”Sports Illustrated,August 12,2003.如果你对“拯救泰德·威廉斯”行动感兴趣,可浏览网站www.saveted.net。
[10] 如果你对最新和最重要的低温物理学感兴趣,可浏览Alcor公司网站www.alcororg。
[11] 关于棕色脂肪和耐寒性的研究,可参见以下论文:B.Cannon and J.Nedergaard.2004.Brown adipose tissue:function and physiological significance.Physiol Rev 84(1):277-359;A.L.Vallerand,J.Zamecnik,and 1.Jacobs.1995.Plasma glucose turnover during cold stress in humans.J Appl Physiol 78(4):1296-1302;J.Watanabe,S.Kanamura,H.Tokunaga,et al.1987.Significance of increase in glucose 6-phosphatase activity in brown adipose cells of cold-exposed and starved mice.Anat Rec 219(1):39-44;A.L.Vallerand,F.Perusse,and L.J.Bukowiecki.1990.Stimulatory effects of cold exposure and cold acclimation on glucose uptake in rat peripheral tissues.Am J Physiol 259(5,Pt 2):R1043-R1049;A.Porras,S.Zuluaga,A.Valladares,et al.2003.Long-term treatment with insulin induces apoptosis in brown adipocytes:role of oxidative stress.Endocrinology 144(12):5390-5401。
[12] 关于排尿与寒冷之间关系背后的争论,历史和科学,以及引用的萨瑟兰的文章,可参见pages 161-176 in B.M.Marriott and S.J.Carlson,Institute of Medicine(U.S.),Committee on Military Nutrition Research,Nutritional Needs in Cold and in High Altitude Environments:Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations(Washington,DC:National Academies Press,1996)。
[13] Elizabeth Svoboda,“Waking from a Dead Sleep,”Discover,February 2005;K.B.Storey and J.M.Storey.1999.Lifestyles of the cold and frozen.The Sciences 39(3),32-37;David A.Fahrenthold,“Looking to Frozen Frogs for Clues to Improve Human Medicine,”Seattle Times,December 15,2004。欲了解更多关于耐寒对药物效用的影响,可参见Cold Cures,by Dr.Boris Rubinsky,at www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3209/05-cures.html。
[14] Sandra Blakeslee,“New Keory Places Origin of Diabetes in an Age of Icy Hardships,”New York Times,May 17,2005。描述糖尿病与耐寒之间关联的原始论文参见S.Moalem,K.B.Storey,M.E.Percy,et al.2005.The sweet thing about Type 1 diabetes:a cryoprotective evolutionary adaptation.Med Hypotheses 65(1):8-16。欲了解更多关于气候变化与人类进化相关主题内容,可参见W.H.Calvin,A Brain for All Seasons:Human Evolution and Abrupt Climate Change(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2002)。
[15] R.C.Hermida,C.Calvo,D.E.Ayala,et al.2003.Seasonal variation of fibrinogen in dipper and nondipper hypertensive patients.Circulation 108(9):1101-1106;V.L.Crawford,S.E.McNerlan,and R.W.Stout.2003.Seasonal changes in platelets,fibrinogen and factor Ⅶ in elderly people.Age Ageing 32(6):661-665;R.W.Stout and V.Crawford.1991.Seasonal variations in fibrinogen concentrations among elderly people.Lancet 338(8758):9-13.
[16] 这项追踪了美国285705名退伍军人、持续两年的大型研究着眼于血红蛋白Alc的血浓度,在很长时间里,它在临床上被用于标记血糖含量。血红蛋白Alc测试是基于与血红蛋白不可逆地绑定在一起的葡萄糖行为(当与葡萄糖绑定在一起时,血红蛋白就被称为糖化血红蛋白(glycated hemoglobin,GHb)或血红蛋白Alc。因为在被替代之前,红细胞会为血红蛋白提供至少两三个月的附着时期,因此测量糖化血红蛋白让临床医生和科学家更清楚地看到糖尿病在长时段中,在一个个体身上如何被控制。本书提及的研究可参见C.L.Tseng,M.Brimacombe,M.Xie,et al.2005.Seasonal patterns in monthly hemoglobin Alc values.Am JEpidemiol 161(6):565-574。
第3章 胆固醇升高也有裨益
[1] Ingfei Chen,“Sunlight,a Cancer Protector in the Guise of a Villain?”New York Times.August 6,2002;M.F.Holic.2004.Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases,cancers,and cardiovascular disease.Am J Clin Nutr 80(6 Suppl):1678S-1688S;J.M.Pettifor,G.P.Moodley,F.S.Hough,et al.1996.The effect of season and latitude on in vitro vitamin D formation by sunlight in South Africa.S Afr Med J 86(10):1270-1272;Anne Marie Owens,“Second-Guessing the Big Coverup,”National Post,February 14,2005;V.Tangpricha,A.Turner,C.Spina,et al.2004.Tanning is associated with optimal vitamin D status(serum 25hydroxyvitamin D concentration)and higher bone mineral density.Am J Clin Nutr 80(6):1645-1649;P.T.Liu,S.Stenger,H.Li,et al.2006.Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response.Science 311(5768):1770-1773;A.Zitterman.2003.Vitamin D in preventive medicine:are we ignoring the evidence?Br J Nutr 89(5):552-572;R.Roelandts.2002.The history of phototherapy:something new under the sun?J Am Acad Dermatol 46(6):926-930.
[2] I.S.Ockene,D.E.Chiriboga,E.J.Stanek Ⅲ,et al.2004.Seasonal variation in serum cholesterol levels:treatment implications and possible mechanisms.Arch Intern Med 164(8):863-870;M.Bluher,B.Hentschel,F.Rassoul,and V.Richter.2001.Influence of dietary intake and physical activity on annual rhythm of cholesterol concentrations.Chronobial Int 18(3):541-557.
[3] P.Koutkia,Z.Lu,T.C.Chen,and M.F.Holick.2001.Treatment of vitamin D deficiency due to Crohn's disease with tanning bed ultraviolet B radiation.Gastroenterology 121(6):1485-1488.
[4] L.D.Botto,A.Lisi,E.Robert-Gnansia,et al.2005.International retrospective cohort study of neural tube defects in relation to folic acid recommendations:are the recommendations working?BMJ 330(7491):571;D.B.Shurtleff.2004.Epidemiology of neural tube defects and folic acid.Cerebrospinal Fluid Res 1(1):5;B.Kamen.1997.Folate and antifolate pharmacology.Semin Oncol 24(5 Suppl 18):S18-30-S 18-39.本章提到的三位孕妇在怀孕期间晒黑以后生下的孩子有神经管缺陷的例子.参见P.Lapunzina.1996.Ultraviolet light-related neural tube defects?Am J Med Genet 67(1):106。
[5] N.G.Jablonski and G.Chaplin.2000.The evolution of human skin coloration.J Hum Evol 39(1):57-106;H.Y Kong,S.H.Jee,C.C.Sun,and R.E.Boissy.2003.The patterns of melanosome distribution in keratinocytes of human skin as one determining factor of skin colour Br J Dermatol 149(3):498-505;R.L.Lamason,M.A.Mohideen,J.R.Mest,et al.2005.SLC24A5,a putative cation exchanger,affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans.Science 310(5755):1782-1786;A.J.Kody,E.M.Higgins.K.Wakamatsu,et al.1991.Pheomelanin as well as eumelanin is present in human epidermis.J Invest Dermatol 97(2):340-344;Saadia Iqbal,“A New Light on Skin Color,”National Geographic Magazine,November 2002;Nina G.Jablonski and George Chaplin,“Skin Deep,”Scientific American,October 2002;Adrian Barnett,“Fair Enough,”New Scientist,October 12,2002.
[6] 有关各种类型皮肤肿瘤的案例和数据,可浏览网站www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/ped_7_1_What_You_Need_To_Know_About_Skin_Cancer.asp.还可参见pages 57-72 in R.Ehrlich,Nine Crazy Ideas in Science:A Few Might Even Be True(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2001)。
[7] P.Valverde,E.Healy,I.Jackson,et al.1995.Variants of the melanocytestimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans.Nat Genet 11(3):328-330;Robin L.Flanigan,“Will Rare Redheads Be Extinct by 2100?”Seattle Times,May 9.2005;T.Ha and J.L.Rees.2001.Melanocortin I receptor:what's red got to do with it?J Am Acad Dermatol 45(6):961-964.
[8] 参见这本杰作pages 10-11,R.S.Root-Bernstein and M.RootBernstein,Honey,Mud,Maggots,and Other Medical Marvels:The Science Behind Folk Remedies and Old Wives'Tales(Boston:Houghton Mifflin,1997);Rajakumar.2003.Vitamin D,cod-liver oil,sunlight,and rickets:a historical perspective.Pediatrics 112(2):e132-e135;M.Brustad,T.Sandanger,Aksnes,and E.Lund.2004.Vitamin D status in a rural population of northern Norway with high fish liver consumption.Public Health Nutr 7(6):783-789;D.J.Holub and B.J.Holub.2004.Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils and cardiovascular disease.Mol Cell Biochem 263(1-2):217-225。
[9] H.C.Everett.1964.Sneezing in response to light.Neurology 14:483-490.更多内容可参见R.Smith.1990.Photic sneezes.Br J Ophthalmol 74(12):705;J.Peroutka and L.A.Peroutka.1984.Autosomal dominant transmission of the“photic sneeze reflex.”N Engl J Med 310(9):599-600;J.M.Forrester.1985.Sneezing on exposure to bright light as an inherited response.Hum Hered 35(2):113-114;E.W.Benbow.1991.Practical hazards of photic sneezing.Br J Ophthalmol 75(7):447.
[10] L.Wall,S.M.Horn,M.L.Johnson,et al.2000.Hangover symptoms in Asian Americans with variations in the aldehyde dehydrogenase(ALDH2)gene.J Stud Alcohol 61(1):13-17;M.Yokoyama,A.Yokoyama,T.Yokoyama,et al.2005.Hangover susceptibility in relation to aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genotype,alcohol flushing,and mean corpuscular volume in Japanese workers.Alcohol Clin Exp Res 29(7):1165-1171;K.A.Veverka,K.L.Johnson,D.C.Mays,et al.1997.Inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase by disulfiram and its metabolite methyl diethylthiocarbamoyl-sulfoxide.Biochem Pharmacol 53(4):511-518;Janna Chan,“Asian Flush:The Silent Killer,”AsianAvenue.com,November 18,2004.
[11] 参见pages 140-165 in M.Z.Wahrman,Brave New Judaism:When Science and Scripture Collide(Hanover,NH:University Press of New England for Brandeis University Press,2002);K.Skorecki,S.Selig,S.Blazer,et al.1997.Y chromosomes of Jewish priests.Nature 385(6611):32;M.G.Komas,K.Skorecki,H.Ben-Ami,et al.1998.Origins of Old Testament priests.Nature 394(6689):138-140.近期有一篇论文挑战上述研究,参见A.Zoossmann-Diskin.2006.Ashkenazi Levites'“Y modal haplotype”(LMH)—an artificially created phenomenon?Homo 57(1):87-100.
[12] 有关亨利·路易斯·盖茨博士更多信息可参见www.pbs.org/wnet/aalives/science_dna2.html.也可参见Editorial.2001.Genes,drugs and race.Nat Genet 29(3):239-240;Emma Daly,“DNA Tells Students Key Aren't Who Key Kought,”New York Times,April 13,2005;Marek Kohn,“This Racist Undercurrent in the Tide of Genetic Research,”Guardian,January 17,2006;Richard Willing,“DNA Tests to Offer Clues to Suspect's Race,”USA Today,August 17,2005
[13] 参见R.Cooper and C.Rotimi.1997.Hypertension in blacks.Am J Hypertens 10(7 Pt 1):804-812;M.P.Blaustein and C.E.Grim.1991.The pathogenesis of hypertension:black-white differences.Cardiovasc Clin 21(3):97-114.更多有关“黑人与血压”的讨论参见www.mayoclinic.com/health/high-bloodpressure/HI00067.更多有关奴隶贸易“中间通道”的讨论参见page 33 of N.I.Painter,Creating Black Americans:African-American History and Its Meanings,1619 to the Present(New York:Oxford University Press,2006);也参见J.Postma,The Atlantic Slave Trade(Gainesville:University Press of Florida,2005);Harold M.Schmeck Jr.,“Study of Chimps Strongly Backs Salt's Link to High Blood Pressure,”New York Times,October 3,1995;Richard S.Cooper,Charles N.Rotimi,and Ryk Ward,“The Puzzle of Hypertension in African-Americans,”Scientific American,February 1999.关于特定种族或族群的数据,可参见美国政府少数族裔健康办公室网站www.omhrc.gov。
[14] 参见pages 43-59 in J.Postma,The Atlantic Slave Trade(Gainesville:University Press of Florida,2005)。
[15] Stephanie Saul,“F.D.A.Approves a Heart Drug for African-Americans,”New York Times,June 24,2005;Kai Wright,“Death by Racism,”Dallas Morning News,June 25,2006;有关该饱含争议的药物的更多信息参见ww.bidil.com。
[16] I.Johansson,E.Lundqvist,L.Bertilsson,et al.1993.Inherited amplification of an active gene in the cytochrome P450 CYP2D locus as a cause of ultra-rapid metabolism of debrisoquine.Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 90(24):11825-11829.
[17] 有关该主题更多信息参见Bob Holms,“Magic Numbers,”New Scientist,April 8,2006;R.Tubbs,J.Pettay,D.Hicks,et al.2004.Novel bright field molecular morphology methods for detection of HER2 gene amplification.J Mol Histol 35(6):589-594.
[18] Y.Gasche,Y.Daali,M.Fathi,et al.2004.Codeine intoxication associated with ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolism.NEngl J Med 351(27):2827-2831.
[19] 有关其他国家人口,特别是印度人中CCR5-Δ32缺乏的问题,以及HIV感染风险上升的问题,参见Seema Singh Bangalore,“‘Wrong’Genes May Raise AIDS Risk for Millions,”New Scientist,April 16,2005;Julie Clayton,”Beating the Odds,”New Scientist,February 8,2003;J.Novembre,A.P.Galvani,and M.Slatkin.2005.The geographic spread of the CCR5-Delta32 HIV-resistance allele.PLoS Biol3(11):e339。
[20] T.A.Clayton,J.C.Lindon,O.Cloarec,et al.2006.Pharmaco-metabonomic phenotyping and personalized drug treatment.Nature 440(7087):1073-1077;S.K.Tate and D.B.Goldstein.2004.Will tomorrow's medicines work for everyone?Nat Genet 36(11 Suppl):S34-S42;I.Roots,T.Gerloff,C.Meisel,et al.2004.Pharmacogenetics-based new therapeutic concepts.Drug Metab Rev 36(3-4):617-638;R.E.Cannon.2006.A discussion of gene-environment interactions:fundamentals of ecogenetics.Environ Health Perspect 114(6):a382;C.G.N.Mascie-Taylor,J.Peters,and S.McGarvey,Society for the Study of Human Biology,The Changing Face of Disease:Implications for Society(Boca Raton,FL:CRC Press,2004);Jo Whelan,“Where's the Smart Money Going in Biotech?”New Scientist,June 18,2005;更多信息可参见疾病预防和控制中心网站www.cdc.gov/PCD/issues/2005/apr/04_0134.htm。
[21] 有关“未来肿瘤护理的模式”,参见the special May 26,2006,issue of the journal Science 312(5777):1157-1175。
第4章 “嘿,蚕豆兄,帮个忙好吗?”
[1] 参见pages 40-41 in M.Toussaint-Samat,A History of Food(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell Reference,1993);D.Zohary and M.Hopf,Domestication of Plants in the Old World:The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia.Europe,and the Nile Valley(New York:Oxford University Press,2000);Golenser,J.Miller,D.T.Spira,et al.1983.Inhibitory effect of a fava bean component on the in vitro development of Plasmodium falciparum in normal and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient erythrocytes.Blood 61(3):507-510。
[2] 引自R.Parsons,“The Long History of the Mysterious Fava Bean,”Los Angeles Times,May 29,1996。
[3] J.Meletis and K.Konstantopoulos.2004.Favism—from the“avoid fava beans”of Pythagoras to the present.Haema 7(1):17-21.
[4] Iwai,A.Hirono,H.Matsuoka,et al.2001.Distribution of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase mutations in Southeast Asia.Hum Genet 108(6):445-449;A.K.Roychoudhury and M.Nei.Human Polymorphic Genes:World Distribution(New York:Oxford University Press,1988);S.H.Katz and J.Schall.1979.Fava bean consumption and biocultural evolution.Med Anthro 3:459-476;S.A.Tishkoff,R.Varkonyi,N.Cahinhinan,et al.2001.Haplotype diversity and linkage disequilibrium at human G6PD:recent origin of alleles that confer malarial resistance.Science 293(5529):455-462.
[5] 有关这个主题更多讨论可参见pages 70-91 in G.P.Nabhan,Why Some Like It Hot:Food,Genes,and Cultural Diversity(Washington,DC:Island Press/Shearwater Books,2004);C.F.Ockenhouse,A.Magill,D.Smith,and Milhous.2005.History of U.S.military contributions to the study of malaria.Mil Med 170(4 Suppl):12-16;A.S.Alving,P.E.Carson,C.L.Flanagan,and C.E.Ickes.1956.Enzymatic deficiency in primaquine-sensitive erythrocytes.Science 124(3220):484-485。
[6] 参见pages 92-94 in E.Barnes,Diseases and Human Evolution(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,2005);H.Ginsburg,H.Atamna,G.Shalmiev,et al.1996.Resistance of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency to malaria:effects of fava bean hydroxypyrimidine glucosides on Plasmodium falciparum growth in culture and on the phagocytosis of infected cells.Parasitology 113(Pt 1):7-18。
[7] 性染色体也有其他可能的组合,包括特纳综合征(Turner's syndrome),患者只有一条运转正常的X染色体(XO);克兰费尔特综合征(Klinefelter syndrome).男性患者拥有一条额外的X染色体(XXY)
[8] 原始研究参见A.Fugh-Berman and F.Kronenberg.2001.Red clover(Trifolium pratense)for menopausal women:current state of knowledge.Menopause 8(5):333-337;H.W.Bennetts,E.J.Underwood,and F.L.Shier.1946.A specific breeding problem of sheep on subterranean clover pastures in Western Australia.Aust J Agric Res 22:131-138;S.M.Heinonen,K.Wahala,and H.Adlercreutz.2004.Identification of urinary metabolites of the red clover isoflavones formononetin and biochanin A in human subjects.J Agric Food Chem 52(22):6802-6809;M.A.Wallig,K.M.Heinz-Taheny,D.L.Epps,and T.Gossman.2005.Synergy among phytochemicals within crucifers:does it translate into chemoprotection?J Nutr 135(12 Suppl):2972S-2977S.更多有关日常食物中“自然”毒素的讨论,可参见K.F.Lampe,M.A.McCann,and American Medical Association,AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants(Chicago:American Medical Association,distributed by Chicago Review Press,1985);M.Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis and P.E.Bowen.2005.Role of lycopene and tomato products in prostate health.Biochim Biophys Acta 1740(2):202-205;National Research Council(U.S.),Food Protection Committee,Toxicants Occurring Naturally in Food(Washington,DC:National Academy of Sciences,1973);D.R.Jacobs Jr.and L.M.Steffen.2003.Nutrients,foods,and dietary patterns as exposures in research:a framework for food synergy.Am J Clin Nutr 78(3 Suppl):508S-513S;J.M.Kingsbury,Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada(Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1964).For cassava toxicity see M.Ernesto,A.P.Cardoso,D.Nicala,et al.2002.Persistent konzo and cyanogen toxicity from cassava in northern Mozambique.Acta Trop 82(3):357-362;M.L.Mlingi,M.Bokanga,F.P.Kavishe,et al.1996.Milling reduces the goitrogenic potential of cassava.Int J Food Sci Nutr 47(6):445-454.有关鹰嘴豆毒素参见P.Smirnoff,S.Khalef,Y.Birk,and S.W.Applebaum.1976.A trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor from chick peas(Cicer arietinum).Biochem J 157(3):745-751。
[9] 有关这种“药物”诞生的故事,参见C.Djerassi,This Man's Pill:Reflections on the 50th Birthday of the Pill(New York:Oxford University Press,2001)和C.Djerassi,The Pill,Pygmy Chimps,and Degas'Horse:The Autobiography of Carl Djerassi(New York:Basic Books,1992)。
[10] Leigh Dayton,“Australia Exports Poisonous‘Lentils,’”New Scientist,October 3,1992;更多内容可参见www.cropscience.org.au/icsc2004/poster/3/2/1/769_vetch.htm。
[11] J.L.Muller.1998.Love potions and the ointment of witches:historical aspects of the nightshade alkaloids.J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 36(6):617-627.
[12] R.Beverley and L.B.Wright,The History and Present State of Virginia(Charlottesville,VA:Dominion Books,1968);S.Berkov,R.Zayed,and T.Doncheva.2006.Alkaloid patterns in some varieties of Datura stramonium.Fitoterapia 77(3):179-182.
[13] 不同种群的P450酶类有相当大的差异,很可能是因为居住在不同的“化学环境”中。我们的身体使用这种细胞色素系统来处理或分解包括处方药在内的化学物质“毒素”。以下重要论文专门研究细胞色素P450如何将辣带进小辣椒的辣椒素代谢过程:C.A.Reilly,W.J.Ehlhardt,D.A.Jackson,et al.2003.Metabolism of capsaicin by cytochrome P450 produces novel dehydrogenated metabolites and decreases cytotoxicity to lung and liver cells.Chem Res Toxicol 16(3):336-349.这些差异将来会应用于基于药物基因组学或药物基因学研究的个性化药物实践,参见P.Gazerani and L.Arendt-Nielsen.2005.The impact of ethnic differences in response to capsaicin-induced trigeminal sensitization.Pain 117(1-2):223-229.
[14] A.Mathew,P.Gangadharan,C.Varghese,and M.K.Nair.2000.Diet and stomach cancer:a case-control study in South India.Eur J Cancer Prev 9(2):89-97;G.Jancso and S.N.Lawson.1990.Transganglionic degeneration of capsaicin-sensitive C-fiber primary afferent terminals.Neuroscience 39(2):501-511;D.H.Wang,W.Wu,and K.J.Lookingland.2001.Degeneration of capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves leads to increased salt sensitivity through enhancement of sympathoexcitatory response.Hypertension 37(2 Pt 2):440-443.有很多文章讨论辣椒素的益处,以下只是其中一小部分:E.Pospisilova and J.Palecek.2006.Post-operative pain behavior in rats is reduced after single high-concentration capsaicin application.Pain[Epub June 21,2006,ahead of print];A.L.Mounsey,L.G.Matthew,and D.C.Slawson.2005.Herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia:prevention and management.Am Fam Physician 72(6):1075-1080;Mary Ann Ryan,“Capsaicin Chemistry Is Hot,Hot,Hot!”American Chemical Society,March 24,2003,参见www.chemistry.org/portal/a/c/s/l/feature ent.html?id=b90b964c5adelld7e3d26ed9fe800100。
[15] N.Soranzo,B.Bufe,P.C.Sabeti,et al,2005.Positive selection on a highsensitivity allele of the human bitter-taste receptor TAS2R16.Curr Biol 15(14):1257-1265;B.Bufe,T.Hofmann,D.Krautwurst,et al.2002.The human TAS2R16 receptor mediates bitter taste in response to betaglucopyranosides.Nat Genet 32(3):397-401.
[16] A.Drewnowski,S.A.Henderson,A.B.Shore,and A.Barratt-Fornell.1997.Nontasters,tasters,and supertasters of 6-n-propylthiouracil(PROP)and hedonic response to sweet.Physiol Behav 62(3):649-655;G.L.Goldstein,H.Daun,and B.J.Tepper.2005.Adiposity in middle-aged women is associated with genetic taste blindness to 6-n-propylthiouracil.Obes Res 13(6):1017-1023.See pages 118-123 in G.P.Nabhan,Why Some Like It Hot:Food,Genes,and Cultural Diversity(Washington,DC:Island Press/Shearwater Books,2004).
[17] 马铃薯晚疫病的显微图像可参见http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/microbes/blight.htm。
[18] 以下论文是关于一位65岁的女性吃了大量芹菜根,并参加一场晒黑沙龙之后发生皮肤反应的事情:B.Ljunggren.1990.Severe phototoxic burn following celery ingestion.Arch Dermatol 126(10):1334-1336.Also see L.Wang,B.Sterling,and P.Don.2002.Berloque dermatitis induced by“Florida water.”Cutis 70(1):29-30;Institute of Medicine(U.S.).Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health,Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods:Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects(Washington,DC:National Academies Press,2004),44。
[19] A.Yoshida and E.F.Roth Jr.1987.Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase of malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.Blood 69(5):1528-1530;C.Ruwende and A.Hill.1998.Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and malaria.J MolMed 76(8):581-588;F.P.Mockenhaupt,J.Mandelkow,H.Till,et al.2003.Reduced prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection and of concomitant anaemia in pregnant women with heterozygous G6PD deficiency.Trop Med Int Health 8(2):118-124;C.Ruwende,S.C,Khoo,R.W.Snow,et al.1995.Natural selection of hemiand heterozygotes for G6PD deficiency in Africa by resistance to severe malaria.Nature 376(6537):246-249.
[20] 参见pages 69-83 in E.Barnes,Diseases and Human Evolution(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,2005);and pages 715-722 of K.J.Ryan,C.G.Ray,and J.C.Sherris,Sherris Medical Microbiology:An Introduction to Infectious Diseases(New York:McGraw-Hill,2004).有关疟疾历史的极为翔实的著作参见K.F.Kiple,The Cambridge World History of Human Disease(New York:Cambridge University Press,1993).中文版有(美)肯尼思·F.基普尔《剑桥世界人类疾病史》,张大庆译,上海科技教育出版社,2007年。有关疟疾与怀孕的问题参见世界卫生组织网站www.who.int/features/2003/04b/en/。有关世界范围内疟疾分布和旅行注意事项并附带地图的资料,参见www.ncid.cdc.gov/travel/yb/utils/ybGet.asp?section=dis&obj=index.htm。
[21] 希波克拉底这本著作的免费电子版可以在麻省理工学院网站http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/airwatpl.html上查阅。
[22] M.Susser.2001.Glossary:causality in public health science.Epidemiol Community Health 55:376-378.
[23] 有关这个故事更深入的研究可参见James Burke,“Cool Stuff,”Scientific American,July 1997;也可参见chapter 10 in J.Burke,Connections(Boston:Little,Brown,1995)。
[24] J.Lederberg.1999.J.B.S.Haldane(1949)on infectious disease and evolution.Genetics 153(1):1-3.For a biographical account of Haldane and his ideas see pages 141-223 in M.Kohn,A Reason for Everything:Natural Selection and the English Imagination(London:Faber and Faber,2004).
[25] P.R.Mayeux,K.C.Agrawal,J.S.Tou,et al.1988.The pharmacological effects of allicin,a constituent of garlic oil.Agents Actions 25(1-2):182-190;M.Zanolli.2004.Phototherapy arsenal in the treatment of psoriasis.Dermatol Clin 22(4):397-406,viii;M.Heinrich and P.Bremner.2006.Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacy—their role for anticancer drug development.Curr Drug Targets 7(3):239-245;X.Sun and D.D.Ku.2006.Allicin in garlic protects against coronary endothelial dysfunction and right heart hypertrophy in pulmonary hypertensive rats.Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol(Epub May 26,2006,ahead of print).
第5章 微生物与人类
[1] Donald G.McNeil Jr.,“Dose of Tenacity Wears Down a Horrific Disease,”New York Times,March 26,2006.关于由卡特中心主导的消灭计划更深入的研究文章参见E.Ruiz-Tiben and D.R.Hopkins.2006.Dracunculiasis(Guinea worm disease)eradication.Adv Parasitol 61:275-309.有关该主题的综述文章参见R.Muller.1971.Studies on Dracunculus medinensis(Linnaeus).Ⅱ.Effect of acidity on the infective larva.J Helminthol 45(2):285-288.真实测试,比如“手脚上的寄生虫如何变得成熟”的实验,参见pages 788-795 in P.Manson and P.H.Manson-Bahr,Manson's Tropical Diseases:A Manual of the Diseases of Warm Climates(Baltimore:W.Wood and Co.1936).欲知更多有关卡特中心所做的勇敢而杰出的努力,参见www.cartercenter.org。欲知更多有关几内亚线虫及其拉丁名字(dra-KUNK-you-LIE-uh-sis)如何正确发音的信息,参见疾病预防和控制中心网站www.cdc.gov/Ncidod/dpd/parasites/dracunculiasis/factsht_dracunculiasis.htm。最后,有关几内亚线虫在历史档案中的记录,参见pages 687-689 in K.F.Kiple,The Cambridge World History of Human Disease(New York:Cambridge University Press,1993)。
[2] 本章提到的“不同的免疫系统”是指主要组织相容性复合体(MHC),最早得名于移植配型。主要组织相容性复合体就像身体用来识别朋友和敌人的细胞条形码。该研究涉及的文献有C.Wedekind,T.Seebeck,F.Bettens,and A.J.Paepke.1995.MHC dependent mate preferences in humans.Proc Biol Sci 260(1359):245-249:有关这一现象更加温和的研究可参见Martie G.Haselton,“Love Special:How to Pick a Perfect Mate,”New Scientist,April 29,2006。
[3] F.Backhed,R.E.Ley,J.L.Sonnenburg,et al.2005.Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine.Science 307(5717):1915-1920;S.R.Gill,M.Pop,R.T.Deboy,et al.2006.Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome.Science 312(5778):1355-1359;Rick Weiss,“Legion of Little Helpers in the Gut Keeps Us Alive,”Washington Post,June 5,2006;C.L.Sears.2005.A dynamic partnership:celebrating our gut flora.Anaerobe 11(5):247-251;F.Guarner and J.R.Malagelada.2003.Gut flora in health and disease.Lancet 361(9356):512-519;M.Heselmans,G.Reid,L.M.Akkermans,et al.2005.Gut flora in health and disease:potential role of probiotics.Curr Issues Intest Microbial 6(1):1-7;E.D.Weinberg.1997.The Lactobacillus anomaly:total iron abstinence.Perspect Biol Med 40(4):578-583;S.Moalem,E.D.Weinberg,and M.E.Percy.2004.Hemochromatosis and the enigma of misplaced iron:implications for infectious disease and survival.Biometals 17(2):135-139.(https://www.daowen.com)
[4] W.G.Eberhard.2000.Spider manipulation by a wasp larva.Nature 406(6793):255-256;W.G.Eberhard.2001.Under the influence:webs and building behavior of Plesiometa argyra(Araneae,Tetragnathidae)when parasitized by Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga(Hymenoptera,Ichneumonidae).Journal of Arachnology 29:354-366;W.G.Eberhard.2000.The natural history and behavior of Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga(Hymenoptera,Ichneumonidac)a parasitoid of Plesiometa argyra(Araneae,Tetragnathidae).Journal of Hymenoptera Research 9(2):220-240.技术性没那么强的内容可参见Nicholas Wade,“Wasp Works Its Will on a Captive Spider,”New York Times,July 25,2000。
[5] 引文来自BBC(英国广播公司)的一篇文章“Parasite's Web of Death,”July 19,2000;原始文献参见news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/841401.htm。
[6] D.Otranto and D.Traversa.2002.A review of dicrocoeliosis of ruminants including recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment.Vet Parasitol 107(4):317-335.有关这种小蠕虫生命周期的图示,可参见ww.parasitology.informatik.uniwuetzburg.de/login/b/me14249.png.php。
[7] Shaoni Bhattacharya,“Parasites Brainwash Grasshoppers into Death Dive,”New Scientist,August 31,2005;原始研究文献有D.G.Biron,L.Marche,F.Ponton,et al.2005.Behavioural manipulation in a grasshopper harbouring hairworm:a proteomics approach.Proc Biol Sci 272(1577):2117-2126;F.Komas,A.Schmidt-Rhaesa,G.Martin,et al.2002.Do hairworms(Nematomorpha)manipulate the water seeking behaviour of their terrestrial hosts?J Evol Biol 15:356-361.欲欣赏金线虫离开可怜的宿主这一场景,可观看以下链接中的视频:www.canal.ird.fr/canal.php?url=/prgrammes/recherches/grillons_us/index.htm。
[8] 有关狂犬病的内容可参见pages 597-600 in K.J.Ryan,C.G.Ray,and J.C.Sherris,Sherris Medical Microbiology:An Introduction to Infectious Diseases(New York:McGraw-Hill,2004)。
[9] J.Moore.1995.The behavior of parasitized animals—when an antis not an ant.Bioscience 45:89-96.更多有关寄生虫操纵的内容参见J.Moore,Parasites and the Behavior of Animals(New York:Oxford University Press,2002).其他内容来源于作者本人对穆尔教授的访谈。
[10] 刚地弓形虫的显微图像可参见http://ryoko.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/toxoplasma.html.Y.Sukthana.2006.Toxoplasmosis:beyond animals to humans.Trends Parasitol 22(3):137-142;E.F.Torrey and H.Yolken.2003.Toxoplasma gondii and schizophrenia.Emerg Infect Dis 9(11):1375-1380;S.Bachmann,J.Schroder,C.Bottmer,et al.2005.Psychopathology in first-episode schizophrenia and antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii.Psychopathology 38(2):87-90;J.P.Webster,P.H.Lamberton,C.A.Donnelly,and E.F.Torrey.2006.Parasites as causative agents of human affective disorders?The impact of anti-psychotic,mood-stabilizer and anti-parasite medication on Toxoplasma gondii's ability to alter host behaviour.Proc Biol Sci 273(1589):1023-1030。
[11] 转引自Jennifer D'Angelo,“Feeling Sexy?It Could Be Your Cat,”Fox News,November 4,2003.See also A.Skallova,M.Novotna,P.Kolbekova,et al.2005.Decreased level of novelty seeking in blood donors infected with Toxoplasma.Neuro Endocrinol Lett 26(5):480-486;J.Flegr,M.Preiss,J.Klose,et al.2003.Decreased level of psychobiological factor novelty seeking and lower intelligence in men latently infected with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii:dopamine,a missing link between schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis?Biol Psychol 63(3):253-268;J.Flegr,J.Havlicek,P.Kodym,et al.2002.Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis:a retrospective case-control study.BMC Infect Dis 2:11;M.Novotna,J.Hanusova,J.Klose,et al.2005.Probable neuroimmunological link between Toxoplasma and cytomegalovirus infections and personality changes in the human host.BMC Infect Dis 5:54;R.H.Yolken,S.Bachmann,I.Ruslanova,et al.2001.Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in individuals with first-episode schizophrenia.Clin Infect Dis 32(5):842-844;L.Jones-Brando,E.F.Torrey,and R.Yolken.2003.Drugs used in the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder inhibit the replication of Toxoplasma gondii.Schizophr Res 62(3):237-244.有一些流行的科普文章可供参考:James Randerson,“All in the Mind?”New Scientist,October 26,2002;David Adam,“Can a Parasite Carried by Cats Change Your Personality?”Guardian Unlimited,September 25,2003;New Scientist Editorial Staff,“Antipsychotic Drug Lessens Sick Rats'Suicidal Tendencies,”New Scientist,January 28,2006;Jill Neimark,“Can the Flu Bring on Psychosis?”Discover,October 2005
[12] 参见pages 46 and 57 in R.M.Nesse and G.C.Williams,Why We Get Sick:The New Science of Darwinian Medicine(New York:Times Books,1994)。
[13] 有关美国儿童受感染的数据,可参见疾控中心网站ww.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/pinworm/factsht_pinworm.htm。
[14] Carl Zimmer,“Manipulative Malaria Parasite Makes You More Attractive(to Mosquitoes),”New York Times,August 9,2005.
[15] E.Swedo,H.L.Leonard,M.Garvey,et al.1998.Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections:clinical description of the first 50 cases,Am J Psychiatry 155(2):264-271;L.A.Snider and S.E.Swedo.2004.PANDAS:current status and directions for research.Mol Psychiatry 9(10):900-907;R.C.Dale,I.Heyman,G.Giovannoni,and A.W.Church.2005.Incidence of anti-brain antibodies in children with obsessivecompulsive disorder.Br J Psychiatry 187:314-319;S.E.Swedo and P.J.Grant.2005.Annotation:PANDAS:a model for human autoimmune disease.J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(3):227-234;C.Heubi and S.R.ShotL 2003.PANDAS:pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections—an uncommon,but important indication for tonsillectomy.Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 67(8):837-840;Anahad O'Connor,“Can Strep Bring On an Anxiety Disorder?”New York Times,December 14,2005;Lisa Belkin,“Can You Catch Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?”New York Times,May 22,2005;Nicholas Bakalar,“Tonsil-Adenoid Surgery May Help Behavior,Too,”New York Times,April 4,2006.
[16] 引自page 205 in N.E.Beckage,Parasites and Pathogens:Effects on Host Hormones and Behavior(New York:Chapman&Hall,1997)。
[17] D.C.Behringer,M.J.Butler,and J.D.Shields.2006.Ecology:avoidance of disease by social lobsters.Nature 441(7092):421.
[18] J.Faulkner,M.Schaller,J.H.Park,and L.A.Duncan.2004.Evolved diseaseavoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes.Group Processes&Intergroup Relations 4:333-353;L.Rózsa.2000.Spite,xenophobia,and collaboration between hosts and parasites.Oikos 91:396-400;R.Kurzban and M.R.Leary.2001.Evolutionary origins of stigmatization:the functions of social exclusion.PsycholBull 127(2):187-208.
[19] Anita Manning,“‘Superbugs'Spread Fear Far and Wide,”USA Today,May 10,2006;“Rising Deadly Infections Puzzle Experts,”Associated Press,May 12,2006;Abigail Zuger,“Bacteria Run Wild,Defying Antibiotics,”New York Times,March 2,2004.
[20] 有关葡萄球菌的内容参见K.J.Ryan,C.G.Ray,and J.C.Sherris,Sherris Medical Microbiology:An Introduction to Infectious Diseases(New York:McGraw-Hill,2004).有关青霉素的发现参见page 216 in T.Rosebury,Microbes and Morals:The Strange Story of Venereal Disease(New York:Viking Press,1971);M.C.Enright,D.A.Robinson,G.Randle,et al.2002.The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA).Proc NatlAcad Sci 99(11):7687-7692;L.B.Rice.2006.Antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive bacteria.Am JMed 119(6 Suppl 1):S11-S19,discussion S62-S70;K.Hiramatsu,H.Hanaki,T.Ino,et al.1997.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility.J Antimicrob Chemother 40(1):135-136;Allison George,“March of the Super Bugs,”New Scientist,July 19,2003。
[21] 此处引用的埃瓦尔德的话,以及有关致病性霍乱的内容,都来源于PBS(美国公共广播公司)www pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/text_pop/1_016_06.html.Roger Lewin,“Shock of the Past for Modern Medicine:A Radical Approach to Medicine Seeks to Explain Diseases and Keir Symptoms as a Legacy of Our Evolution:Can Darwinism Lead to Better Treatments?”New Scientist,October 23,1993;P.W.Ewald,Evolution of Infectious Disease(New York:Oxford University Press,1994);P.W.Ewald.2004.Evolution of virulence.Infect Dis Clin North Am 18(1):1-15;Paul Ewald,“The Evolution of Virulence,”Scientific American,April 1993.对埃瓦尔德教授的有趣访谈参见www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1430/is_n6_v17/ai_16595653.另外一篇很棒的文章可浏览www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol2no4/ewald.htm。
第6章 人类基因库探秘
[1] A.J.Stewart and P.M.Devlin.2006.The history of the smallpox vaccine.J Infect 52(5):329-334;有关天花的历史参见K.F.Kiple,The Cambridge World History of Human Disease(New York:Cambridge University Press,1993)。
[2] L.D.Stein.2004.Human genome:end of the beginning.Nature 431(7011):915-916.
[3] “The word:Junk DNA,”New Scientist,November 19,2005;Wayt Gibbs,“The Unseen Genome:Gems among the Junk,”Scientific American,November 2003.This article is a little dated but still good:Natalie Angier,“Keys Emerge to Mystery of‘Junk’DNA,”New York Times,June 28,1994.Junk DNA finally gets an upgrade,in P.Andolfatto.2005.Adaptive evolution of non-coding DNA in Drosophila.Nature 437(7062):1149-1152;James Kingsland,“Wonderful Spam,”New Scientist,May 29,2004.
[4] 更多有关线粒体的故事参见Philip Cohen,“The Force,”New Scientist,February 26,2000。
[5] D.S.Smith,J.Scalo,and J.C.Wheeler.2004.Importance of biologically active aurora-like ultraviolet emission:stochastic irradiation of Earth and Mars by flares and explosions.Orig Life Evol Biosph 34(5):513-532;K.G.McCracken,J.Beer,and F.B.McDonald.2004.Variations in the cosmic radiation,1890-1986,and the solar and terrestrial implications.Ad Space Res 34:397-406;T.I.Pulkkinen,H.Nevanlinna,P.J.Pulkkinen,and M.Lockwood.2001.The Sun-Earth connection in time scales from years to decades and centuries.Space Science Reviews 95(1/2):625-637;H.S.Hudson,S.Silva,and M.Woodard.1982.The effects of sunspots on solar radiation.Solar Physics 76:211-219;Malcolm W.Browne,“Flu Time:When the Sunspots Are Jumping?”New York Times,January 25,1990;F.Hoyle and N.C.Wickramasinghe.1990.Sunspots and influenza.Nature 343(6256):304;J.W.Yeung.2006.A hypothesis:sunspot cycles may detect pandemic influenza A in 1700-2000.Med Hypotheses 67(5):1016-1022.
[6] 可以说明基因自身重组能力不可思议的例子是一种叫作Dscam的果蝇基因。该基因通过一种叫作剪接体(spliceosome)的酶化“发牌员”进行重组。Dscam基因很神奇,它能产生38016种不同类型而且差异显著的蛋白质。有关Dscam的文献参见J.M.Kreahling and B.R.Graveley.2005.The iStem.a long-range RNA secondary structure element required for efficient exon inclusion in the Drosophila Dscam pre-mRNA.Mol Cell Biol 25(23):10251-10260;A.M.Celotto and B.R.Graveley.2001.Alternative splicing of the Drosophila Dscam pre-mRNA is both temporally and spatially regulated.Genetics 159(2):599-608;G.Parra,A.Reymond,N.Dabbouseh,et al.2006.Tandem chimerism as a means to increase protein complexity in the human genome.Genome Res 16(1):37-44。
[7] 从商业角度研究这种持续改善的特质的著作有M.Ima,Kaizen(Ky'zen),the Key to Japan's Competitive Success(New York:Random House Business Division,1986)。
[8] 参见pages 64-82 in M.Morange,The Misunderstood Gene(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,2001)。
[9] 参见pages 183-198 in 1.Moss,What Genes Can't Do(Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,2003);H.Pearson.2006.Genetics:what is a gene?Nature 441(7092):398-401。
[10] 在遗传学研究领域,有过一段十分奇怪的时期。苏联的李森科主导苏联科学家在这个问题上的认知,后被称为李森科主义,他的观点是对获得性特征的极大扭曲。有关这段历史可参见pages 183-187 in M.Kohn,A Reason for Everything:Natural Selection and the English Imagination(London:Faber and Faber,2004);C.Darwin,The Origin of the Species(New York:Fine Creative Media,2003)。
[11] “The Significance of Responses of the Genome Challenge,”December 8,1983,文章可通过以下链接获取www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1983/mcclintock-lecture.pdf.美国国家医学图书馆有关麦克林托克的在线资源可参见www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/LL/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html.Also see Vidyanand Nanjundiah,“Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes,”Resonance,October 1996。
[12] Y.J.Lin,L.Seroude,and S.Benzer.1998.Extended life-span and stress resistance in the Drosophila mutant methuselah.Science 282(5390):943-946;有关你如何成为下一位玛土撒拉的有趣文章参见Kate Douglas,“How to Live to 100...and Enjoy It,”New Scientist,June 3,2006。
[13] J.Modolell,W.Bender,and M.Meselson.1983.Drosophila melanogaster mutations suppressible by the suppressor of Hairy-wing are insertions of a 7.3 kilobase mobile element.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80(6):1678-1682;C.J.Rohr,H.Ranson,X.Wang,and N.J.Besansky.2002.Structure and evolution of mtanga,a retrotransposon actively expressed on the Y chromosome of the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae.Mol Biol Evol 19(2):149-162;T.E.Bureau,P.C.Ronald,and S.R.Wessler.1996.A computer-based systematic survey reveals the predominance of small inverted-repeat elements in wild-type rice genes.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93(16):8524-8529;S.Henikoff and L.Comai.1998.A DNA methyltransferase homolog with a chromodomain exists in multiple polymorphic forms in Arabidopsis.Genetics 149(1):307-318;J.W.Jacobson,M.M.Medhora,and D.L.Hartl.1986.Molecular structure of a somatically unstable transposable element in Drosophila.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83(22):8684-8688;S.M.Miller,R.Schmitt,and D.L.Kirk.1993.Jordan,an active Volvox transposable element similar to higher plant transposons.Plant Cell 5(9):1125-1138.
[14] G.G.Dimijian.2000.Pathogens and parasites:strategies and challenges.Proc(Bayl Univ Med Cent)13(1):19-29.
[15] 研究中提及的文献包括J.Cairns,J.Overbaugh,and S.Miller.1988.The origin of mutants.Nature 335(6186):142-145;B.G.Hall.1990.Spontaneous point mutations that occur more often when advantageous than when neutral.Genetics 126(1):5-16;S.M.Rosenberg.1997.Mutation for survival.Curr Opin Genet Dev 7(6):829-834;J.Torkelson,R.S.Harris,M.J.Lombardo,et al.1997.Genome-wide hypermutation in a subpopulation of stationary-phase cells underlies recombination-dependent adaptive mutation.Embo J 16(11):3303-3311;P.L.Foster.1997.Nonadaptive mutations occur on the F'episome during adaptive mutation conditions in Escherichia coli.J Bacteriol 179(5):1550-1554;O.Tenaillon,E.Denamur,and I.Matic.2004.Evolutionary significance of stress-induced mutagenesis in bacteria.Trends Microbiol 12(6):264-270.下文提及的马泰的研究参见I.Bjedov,O.Tenaillon,B.Gerard,et al.2003.Stressinduced mutagenesis in bacteria.Science 300(5624):1404-1409。
[16] 涵盖大量一般情况及其相关基因的优秀参考文献参见P.Reilly,Is It in Your Genes?The Influence of Genes on Common Disorders and Diseases Jat Affect You and Your Family(Cold Spring Harbor,NY:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,2004)。
[17] Professor Fred Gage,引自公开文献genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020792.html.有关大脑中的跳跃基因的文章参见A.R.Muotri,V.T.Chu,M.C.Marchetto,et al.2005.Somatic mosaicism in neuronal precursor cells mediated by LI retrotransposition.Nature 435(7044):903-910。
[18] Nancy Craig,引自公开文献www.hopkinsmedicine.org/Press_releases/2004/12_23_04.html.南希·克雷格讨论的研究参见L.Zhou,R.Mitra,P.W.Atkinson,et al.2004.Transposition of hAT elements links transposable elements and V(D)J recombination.Nature 432(7020):995-1001.也参见M.Bogue and D.B.Roth.1996.Mechanism of V(D)J recombination.Curr Opin Immunol 8(2):175-180
[19] 更多有关这个神奇想法的内容参见James Kingsland,“Wonderful Spam,”New Scientist,May 29,2004。
[20] Jef Boeke,引自www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2002-08/jhmigc081502.php.博伊科教授评论的原始文献是D.E.Symer,C.Connelly,S.T.Szak,et al.2002.Human 11 retrotransposition is associated with genetic instability in vivo.Cell 110(3):327-338
[21] P.Medstrand,L.N.van de Lagemaat,C.A.Dunn,et al.2005.Impact of transposable elements on the evolution of mammalian gene regulation.Cytogenet Genome Res 110(1-4):342-352;W.Makalowski.2001.The human genome structure and organization.Acta Biochim Pol 48(3):587-598.
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[23] 参见pages 1-10 in Salvador E.Luria,Virus Growthand Variation,B.Lacey and I.Isaacs,eds.(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1959)。
[24] Luis Villarreal,personal communication.更多有关他的研究参见L.P.Villarreal.2004.Can viruses make us human?Proc Am Phil So 148(3):296-323.L.P.Villarreal,Viruses and the Evolution of Life(Washington,DC:ASM Press,2005);L.P.Villareal.1997.On viruses,sex,and motherhood.J Virol 71(2):859-865。
[25] Charles Siebert,“Unintelligent Design,”Discover,March 2006;M.Syvanen.1984.The evolutionary implications of mobile genetic elements.Annu Rev Genet 18:271-293;D.J.Hedges and M.A.Batzer.2005.From the margins of the genome:mobile elements shape primate evolution.Bioessays 27(8):785-794;M.G.Kidwell and D.R.Lisch.2001.Perspective:transposable elements,parasitic DNA,and genome evolution.Evolution Int J Org Evolution 55(1):1-24;J.Brosius.2005.Echoes from the past—are we still in an RNP world?Cytogenet Genome Res 110(1-4):8-24;C.Biemont and C.Vieira.2005.What transposable elements tell us about genome organization and evolution:the case of Drosophila.Cytogenet Genome Res 110(1-4):25-34;P.Medstrand,L.N.van de Lagemaat,C.A.Dunn,et al.2005.Impact of transposable elements on the evolution of mammalian gene regulation.Cytogenet Genome Res 110(1-4):342-352.
第7章 甲基的疯狂——最终表型之路
[1] 有关这个主题的一部著作是F.M.Berg,Underage&Overweight:The Childhood Obesity Crisis:What Every Family Needs to Know(Long Island City,NY:Hatherleigh Press,2005).有关儿童快餐食物市场,年轻读者和成人读者都可以看的一本书是E.Schlosser and C.Wilson,Chew on This:The Unhappy Truth about Fast Food(Boston:Houghton Mifflin Company,2006).加州大学带参考文献的在线文章可参见ews.ucanr.org/mediakits/Nutrition/nutritionfactsheet.shtml.有关疾控中心所做的“行为风险因素监测”的深度研究参见www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss4906al.htm,也可参见W.H.Dietz and T.N.Robinson.2005.Clinical practice:overweight children and adolescents.N Engl J Med 352(20):2100-2109;D.S.Freedman,W.H.Dietz,S.R.Srinivasan,and G.S.Berenson.1999.The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents:the Bogalusa Heart Study.Pediatrics 103(6 Pt 1):1175-1182.S.J.Olshansky,D.J.Passaro,R.C.Hershow,et al.2005.A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century.N Engl J Med 352(1 1):1138-1145;Philip Cohen,“You Are What Your Mother Ate,Suggests Study,”New Scientist,August 4.2003.《新科学家》的这篇研究文章参考的是R.A.Waterland and R.L.Jirtle.2003.Transposable elements:targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation.Mol Cell Biol 23(15):5293-5300;Alison Motluk,“Life Sentence,”New Scientist,October 30,2004。
[2] Rowan Hooper,“Mendel's Laws of Inheritance Challenged,”New Scientist,May 27,2006;Rowan Hooper,“Men Inherit Hidden Cost of Dad's Vices,”New Scientist,January 6,2006;E.Jablonka and M.J.Lamb,Evolution in Four Dimensions:Genetic,Epigenetic,Behavioral,and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life(Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,2005);R.A.Waterland and R.L.Jirtle.2003.Transposable elements:targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation.MolCell Biol 23(15):5293-5300;Gaia Vince,“Pregnant Smokers Increase Grandkids'Asthma Risk,”New Scientist,April 11,2005;Q.Li,S.Guo-Ross,D.V.Lewis,et al.2004.Dietary prenatal choline supplementation alters postnatal hippocampal structure and function.J Neurophysiol 91(4):1545-1555;Shaoni Bhattacharya,“Nutrient During Pregnancy Super-Charges'Brain,”New Scientist,March 12,2004;Leslie A.Pray,“Dieting for the Genome Generation,”The Scientist,January 17,2005;Anne Underwood and Jerry Adler,“Diet and Genes,”Newsweek,January 24,2005.
[3] Randy Jirtle,引用杜克大学医学中心公开文献,参见www.dukemednews.org/news/article.php?id=6804.完整文章可参见R.A.Waterland and R.L.Jirtle.2003.Transposable elements:targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation.Mol Cell Biol 23(15):5293-5300;Leslie A.Pray,“Epigenetics:Genome,Meet Your Environment:As the Evidence Accumulates for Epigenetics,Researchers Reacquire a Taste for Lamarkism,”The Scientist,July 5,2004;I.C.Weaver,N.Cervoni,F.A.Champagne,et aL 2004.Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior.Nat Neurosci 7(8):847-854;E.W.Fish,D.Shahrokh,R.Bagot,et al.2004.Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care.Ann N YAcad Sci 1036:167-180;A.D.Riggs and Z.Xiong.2004.Methylation and epigenetic fidelity.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(1):4-5。
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[6] M.Enserink.2004.Entomology:an insect's extreme makeover.Science 306(5703):1881.
[7] R.Richard Shine and S.J.Downes.1999.Can pregnant lizards adjust their offspring phenotypes to environmental conditions?Oecologia 119(1):1-8.
[8] P.D.Gluckman and M.Hanson,The Fetal Matrix:Evolution,Development,and Disease(New York:Cambridge University Press,2005).
[9] Shaoni Bhattacharya,“Fattening Up Skinny Toddlers Risks Heart Health,”New Scientist,October 27,2005;C.N.Hales and D.J.Barker.2001.The thrifty phenotype hypothesis.Br Med Bull 60:5-20.
[10] W.Y.Kwong,A.E.Wild,P.Roberts,et al.2000.Maternal undernutrition during the preimplantation period of rat development causes blastocyst abnormalities and programming of postnatal hypertension.Development 127(19):4195-4202.对该主题的概述文章参见V.M.Vehaskari and L.L.Woods.2005.Prenatal programming of hypertension:lessons from experimental models.J Am Soc Nephrol16(9):2545-2556。
[11] Rowan Hooper,“Men Inherit Hidden Cost of Dad's Vices,”New Scientist,January 6,2006;M.E.Pembrey,L.O.Bygren,G.Kaati,et al.2006.Sexspecific,male-line transgenerational responses in humans.Eur J Hum Genet 14(2):159-166.下文马库斯·彭布雷的引用来自E.Pennisi.2005.Food,tobacco,and future generations.Science 310(5755):1760-1761。
[12] Gaia Vince,“Pregnant Smokers Increase Grandkids'Asthma Risk,”New Scientist,April 11,2005.
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[14] R.A.Waterland and R.L.Jirtle.2003.Transposable elements:targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation.Mol Cell Biol 23(15):5293-5300.
[15] Christen Brownlee,“Nurture Takes the Spotlight,”Science News,June 24,2006.
[16] 公司网站为www.epigenomics.de/en/Company/.有关表观遗传学的更多内容可参见G.Riddihough and E.Pennisi.2001.The evolution of epigenetics.Science 293(5532):1063;E.Jablonka and M.J.Lamb.2002.The changing concept of epigenetics.Ann N YAcad Sci 981:82-96;V.K.Rakyan,J.Preis,H.D.Morgan,and E.Whitelaw.2001.The marks,mechanisms and memory of epigenetic states in mammals.Biochem J 356(Pt 1):1-10。
[17] D.H.Kim,H.H.Nelson,J.K.Wiencke,et al.2001.p16(INK4a)and histologyspecific methylation of CpG islands by exposure to tobacco smoke in nonsmall cell lung cancer.Cancer Res 61(8):3419-3424;H.Enokida,H.Shiina,S.Urakami,et al.2006.Smoking influences aberrant CpG hypermethylation of multiple genes in human prostate carcinoma.Cancer 106(1):79-86.
[18] Dr.Dhananjaya Saranath,引自www.telegraphindia.com/1050214/asp/knowhow/story_4376851.asp.
[19] 有相当多的文献研究这个主题,比如有一篇略微老旧却仍然优质的论文参见MRC Vitamin Study Research Group.1991.Prevention of neural tube defects:results of the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study.Lancet 338(8760):131-137,更加直截了当的论文有C.M.Ulrich and J.D.Potter.2006.Folate supplementation:too much of a good thing?Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15(2):189-193
[20] 本章提及的多伦多大学这项研究可参见A.Kapoor,E.Dunn,A.Kostaki,et al.2006.Fetal programming of hypothalamopituitary-adrenal function:prenatal stress and glucocorticoids.J Physiol 572(Pt 1):31-44;P.Erdeljan,M.H.Andrews,J.F.MacDonald,and S.G.Matthews.2005.Glucocorticoids and serotonin alter glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels in fetal guinea-pig hippocampal neurons,in vitro.Reprod Fertil Dev 17(7):743-749.The quote in the chapter,“terrifying beyond comprehension,”is from Alison Motluk,“Pregnancy Drug Can Affect Grandkids Too,”New Scientist,December 3,2005。
[21] Peter Jones,引自Lori Oliwenstein,“USC Cancer Researchers Examine Potential of Epigenetics in Nature,”HSC Weekly,May 28,2004.
[22] G.Egger,G.Liang,A.Aparicio,and P.A.Jones.2004.Epigenetics in human disease and prospects for epigenetic therapy.Nature 429(6990):457-463.
[23] D.Gius,H.Cui,C.M.Bradbury,et al.2004.Distinct effects on gene expression of chemical and genetic manipulation of the cancer epigenome revealed by a multimodality approach.Cancer Cell 6(4):361-371;R.S.Tuma.2004.Silencing the critics:studies move closer to answering epigenetic questions.J Natl Cancer Inst 96(22):1652-1653;M.Z.Fang,Y.Wang,N.Ai,et al.2003.Tea polyphenol(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits DNA methyltransferase and reactivates methylation-silenced genes in cancer cell lines.Cancer Res 63(22):7563-7570.
[24] Dana Dolinoy,引自公开文献www.dukemednews.org/news/article.php?id=9584.D.C.Dolinoy,J.R.Weidman,R.A.Waterland,and R.L.Jirtle.2006.Maternal genistein alters coat color and protects Avy mouse offspring from obesity by modifying the fetal epigenome.Environ Health Perspect 114(4):567-572.Also see M.Z.Fang,D.Chen,Y.Sun,et al.2005.Reversal of hypermethylation and reactivation of p 16INK4a,RARbeta,and MGMT genes by genistein and other isoflavones from soy.Clin Cancer Res 11(19 Pt 1):7033-7041。
[25] 有关“9·11”恐怖袭击事件的研究参见R.Catalano,T.Bruckner,J.Gould.et al.2005.Sex ratios in California following the terrorist attacks of September 11,2001.Hum Reprod 20(5):1221-1227;有关德国重新统一后民主德国的母亲所面临的压力的研究参见R.A.Catalano.2003.Sex ratios in the two Germanies:a test of the economic stress hypothesis.Hum Reprod 18(9):1972-1975;有关斯洛文尼亚战争过后的研究参见B.Zorn,V.Sucur,J.Stare,and H.Meden-Vrtovec.2002.Decline in sex ratio at birth after 10-day war in Slovenia:brief communication.Hum Reprod 17(12):3173-3177;有关阪神地震对生育率的影响的研究参见M.Fukuda,K.Fukuda,T.Shimizu,and H.Moller.1998.Decline in sex ratio at birth after Kobe earthquake.Hum Reprod 13(8):2321-2322;Hazel Muir,“Women Who Believe in Long Life Bear Sons,”New Scientist,August 4,2004;原始研究参见S.E.Johns.2004.Subjective life expectancy predicts offspring sex in a contemporary British population.Proc Biol Sci 271(Suppl 6):S474-S476;Will Knight,“9/11 Babies Inherit Stress from Mothers,”New Scientist,May 3,2005。
[26] 来自美国国家人类基因组研究所(National Human Genome Research Institute,NHGRI)网站www.genome.gov/11006943。
[27] Shaoni Bhattacharya,“Human Gene On/Off Switches to Be Mapped,”New Scientist,October 7,2003;P.A.Jones and R.Martienssen.2005.A blueprint for a Human Epigenome Project:the AACR Human Epigenome Workshop.Cancer Res 65(24):11241-11246.美国癌症研究协会(American Association for Cancer Research)提供了一些在线文章,参见www.aacr.org/Default.aspx?p=6336&d=562。
第8章 这就是人生:为什么你和你的iPod终将走向死亡
[1] Carol Smith,“Lessons from a Boy Growing Old before His Time,”Seattle Post-Intelligencer Reporter,September 16,2004;ABC(美国广播公司)新闻频道也有一篇关于塞思的文章,参见abcnews.go.com/GMA/Health/story?id=1445002.欲知更多内容,浏览早年衰老综合征(Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome Network)网站www.hgps.net;早衰研究所也提供了大量内容,参见www.progeriaresearcb.org/progeria_101.html。本书的写作时间在2007年以前,那时塞思·库克尚未去世;2007年6月,塞思·库克走完了他未满14年的人生历程。
[2] M.Eriksson,W.T Brown,L.B.Gordon,et al.2003,Recurrent de novo point mutations in lamin A cause Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome.Nature 423(6937):293-298.
[3] P.Scaffidi and T.Misteli.2006.Lamin A-dependent nuclear defects in human aging.Science 312(5776):1059-1063.
[4] L.Hayflick.1965.The limited in vitro lifetime of human diploid cell strains.Exp Cell Res 37:614-616;D.Josefson.1998.US scientists extend the life of human cells.BMJ 316:247-252;L.Hayflick.2000.The illusion of cell immortality.Br J Cancer 83(7):841-846.
[5] 参见美国癌症协会网站2006年的癌症案例和数据信息www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2006PWSecured.pdf.也参见T.Kom,N.Haase,W.Rosamond,et al.2006.Heart disease and stroke statistics—2006 update:a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee.Circulation 113(6):e85-151。
[6] 参见怀特黑德研究所(Whitehead Institute)网站在线文章www.wi.mitedu/news/archives/1997/rw_0814.html。
[7] 有关这个主题的文章很多,有一篇略微老旧却质量很高,参见Nicholas Wade,“Experts See Immortality in Endlessly Dividing Cells,”New York Times,November 17,1998。
[8] G.A.Cortopassi and E.Wang.1996.There is substantial agreement among interspecies estimates of DNA repair activity.Mech Ageing Dev 91(3):211-218.
[9] 有关“计划报废”的有趣研究参见G.Slade,Made to Break:Technology and Obsolescence in America(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,2006).有关苹果公司使用计划报废方法设计广受欢迎的iPod,可参见www.cerge.cuni.cz/pdf/events/papers/060410_t.pdf。
[10] “Breakthrough in Premature Ageing,”New Scientist,March 12,2005;P.Scaffidi and T.Misteli.2005.Reversal of the cellular phenotype in the premature aging disease Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome.Nat Med 11(4):440-445.
[11] 从进化论视角看小孩儿出生,参见pages 183-203 in W.Trevathan,E.O.Smith,and J.J.McKenna,Evolutionary Medicine(New York:Oxford University Press,1999);K.R.Rosenberg and W.R.Trevathan,“The Evolution of Human Birth,”Scientific American,November 2001;H.Nelson,R.Jurmain,and L.Kilgore,Essentials of Physical Anthropology(St.Paul,MN:West Publishing,1992)。
[12] Elaine Morgan,personal communication.The Descent of Woman(New York:Stein and Day,1972),中文版有(美)伊莲·摩根《女人的起源》,刘筠译,生活·读书·新知三联书店,2016年;E.Morgan,The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis(London:Souvenir Press,1997);E.Morgan,The Aquatic Ape:A Jeory of Human Evolution(London:Souvenir Press,1982);E.Morgan,The Scars of Evolution(New York:Oxford University Press,1994);E.Morgan,The Descent of the Child:Human Evolution from a New Perspective(New York:Oxford University Press,1995);A.C.Hardy,“Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?“New Scientist,March 17,1960;F.W.Jones,Man's Place among the Mammals(New York,London:Longman,E.Arnold&Co.,1929);Kate Douglas,“Taking the Plunge,”New Scientist,November 25,2000.对伊莲·摩根的采访参见Kate Douglas,“Interview:The Natural Optimist,”New Scientist,April 23,2005。
[13] A.Kuliukas.2002.Wading for food the driving force of the evolution of bipedalism?Nutr Health 16(4):267-289.See also Libby Brooks,“Come on in—the Water's Lovely,”Guardian,May 1,2003.
[14] 本章提及的研究成果是R.E.Gilbert and P.A.Tookey.1999.Perinatal mortality and morbidity among babies delivered in water:surveillance study and postal survey.BMJ 319(7208):483-487.有关水中分娩和婴儿游泳的一本精美的绘本是J.Johnson and M.Odent,We Are All Water Babies(Berkeley,CA:Celestial Arts Publishing,1995);E.R.Cluett,R.M.Pickering,K.Getliffe,and N.J.St George Saunders.2004.Randomised controlled trial of labouring in water compared with standard of augmentation for man-agement of dystocia in first stage of labour.BMJ 328(7435):314;E.R.Cluett,V.C.Nikodem,R.E.McCandlish,and E.E.Bums.2004.Immersion in water in pregnancy,labour and birth.Cochrane Database Syst Rev(2):CD000111.文中提及的意大利的一项研究参见A.Koeni,N.Zech,L.Moroder,and F.Ploner.2005.Review of 1600 water births:does water birth increase the risk of neonatal infection?J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 17(5):357-361.水中分娩并非没有争议,参见一项并未发现任何正相关的研究K.Eckert,D.Turnbull,and A.MacLennan.2001.Immersion in water in the first stage of labor:a randomized controlled trial.Birth 28(2):84-93。
[15] 会阴切开术与其他医疗程序一样,在不同国家施行的数量也都不一样。比如,美国的会阴切开术手术比例在30%以上,超过北欧国家的10%这个数据。更多细节参见S.B.Kacker and H.D.Banta.1983.Benefits and risks of episiotomy:an interpretative review of the English language literature,1860-1980.Obstet Gynecol Surv 38(6):322-338;有关会阴切开术的替代方法参见M.M.Beckmann and A.J.Garrett.2006.Antenatal perineal massage for reducing perineal trauma.Birth 33(2):159。
[16] M.B.McGraw,The Neuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant(New York:Columbia University Press,1943).