2.1.4 Searle's Improvements and Implications
As Searle points out，there are many weaknesses in Austin's classification：Firstly，Austin's classification is obviously more of a classification of illocutionary verbs than of a classification of illocutionary acts.In other words，Austin confuses illocutionary verbs with illocutionary acts；secondly，and most importantly，there are no consistent principle or principles serving as the basis for the classification；thirdly，there are many overlaps between the categories owing to the absence of a consistent principle for the classification；fourthly，often in one category there are examples of verbs inappropriately falling into it or clearly different from the other examples listed there.These are just the four most important weaknesses in Austin's classification.
So on the basis of his criticism ofAustin's taxonomy，Searle shows us a more scientific and systematic classification ofillocutionary acts.Searle first discusses 12 dimensions according to which illocutionary acts might be classified.Among them，the four most important are the illocutionary point，the direction of fit between words and the world，the expressed psychological state and the propositional content.Based on the four criteria，Searle classifies illocutionary acts into the five categories of representatives，directives，commissives，expressives and declarations（Searle，1976b，pp.10-11）.Later，in Expression and Meaning-Studies in the Theory of Speech Act，he modifies his classification，and changes the first category of“representatives”into“assertives”.The following are the definitions and explanations that Searle gives to further explicate his five classes ofillocutionary acts：
①Assertives：The illocutionary point（the purpose or point of the illocutionary act）of this class is to get the hearer to accept the fact that something's being the case，and to believe the truthfulness of the expressed proposition.They are without an exception verifiable.The direction of fit is words to the world and the psychological state expressed is“belief”.
②Directives：The purpose ofthe illocutionary acts falling into this category is to get the hearer to do something.The speaker attempts to make the world fit his words and the sincerity condition is“want”，or“wish”，or“desire”.The propositional content is that the hearer does some future action.Verbs implying this class of illocutionary acts are ask，command，request，beg，plead，pray，entreat，and also invite，permit，etc.
③Commissives：Searle accepts Austin's definition of commissives，saying that it seems to him“unexceptionable”.Therefore，the point of these illocutionary acts is to“commit the speaker to some future course of action”.Like in the case of directives，the speaker of commissives also tries to make the world fit his words and the sincerity condition is“intention”.Contrary to the directives，the propositional content is that the speaker does some future action.
④Expressives：The illocutionary goal of expressive acts can be defined as the expression of a psychological state of the speaker that is brought about by the state of affairs indicated in the propositional content.Verbs like“to thank”，“to congratulate”，“to condole”and“to welcome”are typical expressive verbs.There is no direction of fit here since the speaker is neither attempting to bend the world to match his words，nor the other way round.The propositional content is the result of certain action or feeling of either the speaker or the hearer.
⑤Declarations：The class of declarations is different from the other four categories in that a successful performance of a declarative speech act leads to the correspondence between the propositional content and reality.In other words，successful performance of a declarative speech act will make the propositional content consistent with the world.One of the examples that Searle gives to elaborate to this type is like this：If I successfully perform the act of appointing you chairman，then you are chairman（Searle，1969c，p.13）.In this class，there is no surface syntactical distinction between propositional content and illocutionary force.