结构性的经济力量及其限制
对公司的权力来说,所有的这一切意味着什么?首先,本章中研究的其他经济利益体,亦即农场主、小企业主以及地方增长联盟,没有一个能在全国层次上为有效反对企业共同体提供组织基础。至于企业共同体面对的直接挑战,则来自于工会运动,以及大学、宗教社区和文学艺术共同体中人数相对较少的自由主义者和左派。通过写作和在媒体上的表现,自由派—劳工联盟的成员经常有着很高的曝光率,给人留下了力量相当强大的最初印象。通过极端保守主义者在媒体上反复宣传自由主义者的巨大力量,这一印象得到强化。在后面的章节中,我们将从不同的方面来讨论这一印象是否正确。
商界领袖们通过他们的公司行使的经济权力是相当可观的。例如,他们可以在自己选择的时间和地点投资金钱。如果他们感到受到了新法律或工会的威胁,他们可以转移或者关闭他们的工厂和办公室。除非受到工会契约的限制(目前只覆盖到7.9%的私营部门雇员),他们可以雇用、提升和替换他们感到舒心的工人,经常在一眨眼的功夫里就将雇员解雇。这些经济权力使他们对于绝大多数美国人具有一种直接的影响力,因为大多数美国人都依赖工资和薪水作为自己的收入,在直接挑战公司时经常犹豫不定。经济权力也赋予企业共同体针对民选和派任官员的直接影响力,因为如果企业对政府缺乏商业信心,一个城市、州或国家的经济增长和稳定在总体上就会陷入危险的境地。
简而言之,在不需要公司领导者做出任何努力的情况下,企业共同体的纯经济权就能够影响政府。由于商人拥有按其意愿去决定如何花钱的法定权利,政府官员不敢接管投资资金去创造就业,也就是说,政府必须去迎合商人。如果政府官员不给企业领导者他们所想要的东西,就有可能出现经济困难,而那个时候人民就会渴望新的政治领导人。既然大多数政府官员不想失去他们的职位,他们就会去做为满足商业领袖和维系一个健康的经济而必须做的事情。[56]
通过这一方式,超越投资功能的私人控制就为企业共同体内部的领导者们提供了一种结构性的力量(structural power),相对于他们试图影响政府官员的直接努力而言,这种力量是独立性的。不过,虽然这种力量非常强大,但是它本身尚不足以使得企业共同体去支配政府,尤其是在经济或政治危机的时候。首先,它并没有预先排除这样一种可能性,那就是政府官员有可能转而向非商业选民寻求他们支持新的经济安排。与保守主义经济学家声称的相反,私人所有权和市场之间没有必然的联系。[57]虽然对许多读者来说这似乎有点像天方夜谭,但是政府确实有可能创建公司到市场上去竞争,从而使压抑的经济重新复苏;或者,政府还有可能雇用失业工人,从而增加他们消费的能力。事实上,在“二战”后不久,自由派—劳工联盟曾发起过一项与此有稍许相似的立法努力,只不过在国会中,由南方民主党人和北方共和党人组成的保守主义投票集团使得这项努力落空了。[58]
其次,结构性的力量并不能保证,在不接收工厂和不破坏私人财产的情况下,雇员会接受持久的经济萧条。在这样的情况下——虽然十分罕见——公司的领导者需要政府来保护他们的私人财产。他们不得不使自身具备号召政府阻止未被授权的人进入他们工厂和设备的能力。简言之,结构性的力量主要关注的是企业共同体和政府官员之间的关系。它并非总是能限制住所有者和工人之间易爆发的权力冲突,因为这种冲突已经成为经济体的一部分。事实上,在美国历史上,这种激烈的对抗已经发生了一回又一回。例如,1877年,一项针对铁路工人的减薪方案引发了一场罢工浪潮,从铁路蔓延到煤矿再蔓延到各种工厂,造成100人死亡,其中的大部分人死于3000名联邦军人之手,这些军人坐火车从这座城市赶往另一座城市,去平息一场场骚乱。仅仅在匹兹堡就有20人死亡,在那里,愤怒的民众洗劫和焚烧了宾夕法尼亚铁路局拥有的39座建筑、104辆机车车头、46辆客车以及1200辆卡车作为报复。在大萧条时期,死亡和财产损失的范围虽然没有那么广,但是,1934年9月在新英格兰和南方,有14人在纺织工人罢工中被杀,而在1937年,则有477人静坐示威,要求承认工会。在企业共同体内,这样的事件并没有被很快地遗忘。[59]
从组织理论的角度来看,企业共同体和政府之间存在一种不确定的关系,因为没有什么东西可以保证,在所有的经济条件下,基层的民众和政府官员都会接受公司所有者的观点。于是,在经济萧条中,如果企业的主管拒绝投资或仍然十分消极,那就会带来危险。因此,企业共同体的领导们感到,有必要对公众和政府官员发挥直接的影响力。为了实现这些目标,他们已经想出了许多方法。正如一名企业的高层领导所表现出来的那样,当他被告知他的公司也许已经具备了足够的结构性经济力量,从而无需再努力影响民选官员时,他回答道:“我不太肯定,但是我并不愿意看到你说的这些内容。”[60]
为了全面地解释所有者和高层管理人员是如何能够将自己组织起来,从而创建新政策、形塑民意、选举他们信任的政客以及影响政府官员的,我们有必要首先考察一下企业共同体和社会上层阶级之间的关系。
[1]Robert F.Dalzell,Enterprising Elite:the Boston Associates and the World They Made(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1987);Charles Perrow,Organizing America:Wealth,Power,and the Origins of Corporate Capitalism(Princeton:Princeton University Press,2002).
[2]David Bunting,“Origins of the American Corporate Network,”Social Science History 7(1983):129—142.
[3]William G.Roy,“Interlocking Directorates and the Corporate Revolution,”Social Science History 7(1983):143—164.
[4]William G.Roy,Socializing Capital:The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America(Princeton:Princeton University Press,1997).
[5]Mark S.Mizruchi,The American Corporate Network,1904—1974(Beverly Hills:Sage Publications,1982);Mark S.Mizruchi,“Relations Among Large American Corporations,1904—1974,”Social Science History 7(1983):165—182;Bech Mintz and Michael Schwartz,The Power Structure of American Business(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1985).
[6]R.C.Barnes & E.Ritter,“Networks of Corporate Interlock:1962—1995,”Critical Sociology 27(2001):192—220;William K.Carroll,Corporate Power in a Globalizing World(New York:Oxford University Press,2004);Gerald Davis,Mina Yoo,& Wayne Baker.“The Small World of the American Corporate Elite,1982—2001,”Strategic Organization 13(2002):301—326.
[7]Myles L.Mace,Directors,Myth and Reality(Boston:Harvard Business School Press,1986);Mayer N.Zald,“The Power and Functions of Boards of Directors:A Theoretical Synthesis,”American Journal of Sociology 75(1969):97—117.
[8]Michael Useem,The Inner Circle:Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S.and U.K.(New York:Oxford University Press,1984);Joseph Galaskiewicz et al.,“The Influence of Corporate Power,Social Status,and Market Position on Corporate Interlocks in a Regional Network,”Social Forces 64(1985):403—432.
[9]Richard L.Zweigenhaft & G.William Domhoff,Jews in the Protestant Establishment(New York:Praeger,1982);Richard L.Zweigenhaft & G.William Domhoff,Diversity in the Power Elite(Lanham,MD.:Rowman & Littlefield,2006).
[10]Mayer N.Zald,“The Power and Functions of Boards of Directors:A Theoretical Synthesis,”American Journal of Sociology 75(1969):97—117;Nancy DiTomaso,“Organizational Analysis and Power Structure Research,”in Power Structure Research,ed.G.William Domhoff(Beverly Hills:Sage Publications,1980),pp.225—268;Susan Ostrander,“Elite Domination in Private Social Agencies:How It Happens and How It Is Challenged,”in Power Elite and Organizations,ed.William Domhoff and Thomas Dye(Beverly Hills:Sage Publications,1987),pp.85—102.
[11]Lawrence J.White,“Trends in Aggregate Concentration in the United States,”Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(2002):137—160.
[12]R.Barnes & E.Ritter,“Networks of Corporate Interlock:1962—1995,”Critical Sociology,27(2001):192—220;Gerald Davis,Mina Yoo,& Wayne Baker.“The Small World of the American Corporate Elite,1982—2001,”Strategic Organization 1no.3(2002):301—326;Peter Mariolis,“Interlocking Directorates and Control of Corporations”,Social Sciencees Quaterly 56(1975):425—439.
[13]虽然就社会学的论题来说,37条相互连接的纽带是一个令人印象深刻的数字,但是,在25家企业所有可能的连接中(300条),一共只有12%的连接在现实中实际存在。因此,从网络理论的角度来说,这一网络并不是“密集”的,而是“稀疏”的。
[14]作者在这里指的是“企业共同体里的连锁董事会”一文,鉴于该文在研究方法上的重要性,经作者授权,我们将该文以本章附录的形式翻译了过来。另外,关于这25家企业内部的连接数,该书英文原版的数字有误,中文版的数字是根据作者的更正来翻译的。
[15]Tomas Koenig & Robert Gogel,“Interlocking Corporate Directorships As a Social Network,”The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 40 no.1(1981):37—50;Donald Palmer,“Interpreting Corporate Interlocks from Broken Ties”,Social Science History 7(1983):217—231;Bech Mintz & Michael Schwartz,“Financial Interest Groups and Interlocking Directorates,”Social Justice History 7(1983):183—204.
[16]Gerald Davis,Mina Yoo,& Wayne Baker,“The Small World of the American Corporate Elite,1982—2001,”Strategic Organization 1no.3(2002):305.
[17]Richard L.Zweigenhaft & G.William Domhoff,Diversity in the Power Elite(Lanham,Md.:Rowman & Littlefield,2006).
[18]David Bunting,“Origins of the American Corporate Network,”Social Science History 7(1983):129—142;William G.Roy,“Interlocking Directorates and the Corporate Revolution,”Social Science History 7(1983):143—164.
[19]Michael Useem,The Inner Circle:Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S.and U.K.(New York:Oxford University Press,1984).
[20]Bennett Harrison,Lean and Mean:The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility(New York:Basic Books,1994).
[21]Bennett Harrison,Lean and Mean:The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility(New York:Basic Books,1994),47.
[22]James A.Gross,Broken Promise:The Subversion of U.S.Labor Relations Policy,1947—1994(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1995).
[23]Stephen Johnson,“How the West Was Won:Last Shootout for the Yankee Cowboy Theory,”Insurgent Sociologist 6(1976):61—93.
[24]Ted Goertzel,“Militarism as a Sociological Problem,”Research in Political Sociology 1(1985):119—139.
[25]James Sterngold,“A Swift Transformation,”New York Times,December 16,1996,1;James Sterngold,“G.M.Sells Unit to Raytheon as Arms Mergers Continue,”New York Times,January 7,1997,1.
[26]Jacob Goldman,“Innovation Isn't the Microsoft Way,”New York Times,10 June 2000,A27.
[27]Janet Abbate,Inventing the Internet(Cambridge:MIT Press,1999).
[28]Barnaby Feder,“New Economy,”New York Times,18 November 2000,C4.
[29]Reed E.Hundt,You Say You Want a Revolution:A Story of Information Age Politics(New Haven:Yale University Press,2000).
[30]股票期权(stock option)指的是这样一种安排,它允许雇员在未来一段时间里的任何时点,按照期权被授予时股票的价格,买进公司的股票。如果股票的价格上升,雇员通常可以在公司低息或免息贷款的帮助下,按照原初的低价买进。然后,他或她可以按照市场价格抛出这些股票,从而以比普通收入低得多的税率,获得一大笔资金。
[31]Kathleen Pender,“Giant Cisco Didn't Pay Any Federal Income Tax,”San Francisco Chronicle,8 October 2000,1;Gretchen Morgenstern,“Options Seen to Be Coming Home to Roost,”New York Times,8 October 2000,Cl;Floyd Norris,“Levitt to Leave S.E.C.Early;Bush to Pick 4,”New York Times,21 December 2000,C1.
[32]Elizabeth Palmer,“Well-Timed Push on H-1 B Bill Gives Businesses All They Asked,”CQ Weekly,7 October 2000.2331—2333.
[33]Neil Munro,“For Richer and Poorer,”National Journal,18 July 2000,1676—1680.
[34]Rachel Parker-Gwin and William G.Roy,“Corporate Law and the Organization of Property in the United States:The Origin and Institutionalization of New Jersey Corporation Law,1888—1903,”Politics & Society,June 1996,111(25).(https://www.daowen.com)
[35]Robert L.Nelson,Partners with Power:The Social Transformation of the Large Law Firm(Berkeley:University of California Press,1988),p.232.
[36]Robert L.Nelson,Partners with Power:The Social Transformation of the Large Law Firm(Berkeley:University of California Press,1988),pp.264,269.
[37]Robert Granfield,Making Elite Lawyers:Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond(New York:Routledge,1992).
[38]Dan Carney,“Mr.Class Action Goes to Washington?”Business Week,11 September 2000,100—104.
[39]G.William Domhoff,State Autonomy or Class Dominance?Case Studies on Policy Making in America(Hawthorne,NY.:Aldine de Gruyter,1996),Chapter 3;Grant McConnell,The Decline of Agrarian Democracy(Berkeley:University of California Press,1953).
[40]William Browne et al.,Sacred Cows and Hot Potatoes(Boulder:Westview Press,1992);Barnaby Feder,“For Amber Waves of Data,”New York Times,4 May 1998,Cl;David Barboza,“Is the Sun Setting for Farmers?”New York Times,28 November 1999,C1;来自农业部的最新信息,参见www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/farmincome.html.
[41]John L.Shover,First Majority,Last Minority:The Transforming of Rural Life in America(DeKalb:Northern Illinois University Press,1976);Farms and Land in Farms(Washington,D.C.:National Agriculture Statistical Services,2000);Linda Lobao and Katherine Meyer,“The Great Agriculture Transition,”Annual Review of Sociology 27(2001):103—124.
[42]Jennifer Erickson,“The 400 Largest Farms in the U.S.,”Successful Farming,April 1992,18—27;Betty Freese,“Pork Powerhouse,”Successful Farming,October 1996,27—32;Linda Lobao and Katherine Meyer,“Farm Power Without Farmers,”Contexts 3(2004):12—21.
[43]Clark Williams-Derry and Ken Cook,Bumper Crop:Congress'Latest Attempt to Boost Subsidies for the Largest Farms(Washington,D.C.:Environmental Working Group,2000);Clark Williams-Derry,Report on Farm Subsidies,1996—1999(Washington,D.C.:Environmental Working Group,2001).关于最近的信息,参见环境工作小组的网站www.ewg.org。
[44]Vicki Monks,Amber Waves of Gain(New York:Defenders of Wildlife,2000);William P.Browne,The Failure of National Rural Policy(Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2001).
[45]Wesley McCune,Who's Behind Our Farm Policy?(New York:Praeger,1957).
[46]Small Business Administration,The Facts about Small Business(Washington,D.C.:Small Business Administration,1996).
[47]Scott Hodge,“For Big Franchisers,Money to Go,”Washington Post Weekly,8 December 1997,23;“Franchise Bytes”(Washington,D.C.:International Franchise Association,2004).
[48]William Browne et al.,Sacred Cows and Hot Potatoes(Boulder:Westview Press,1992),p.24.
[49]J.Birnbaum,“Power Player:Jack Fairs,”FSB,I October 2001;R.Shaiko and M.Wallace,“From Wall Street to Main Street:The National Federation of Independent Business and the New Republican Majority,”in After the Revolution:PACs,Lobbies,and the Republican Congress,ed.R.Biersack,P.Herrnson,and C.Wilcox(Boston:Allyn & Bacon,1999),pp.18—35.
[50]Handbook of Small Business Data(Washington,D.C.:Small Business Administration,2004).
[51]John R Logan & Harvey Molotch,Urban Fortunes:The political Economy of Place(Berkeley:University of California Press,1987),p.23.
[52]G.William Domhoff,Who Really Rules?New Haven and Community Power Re-Examined(New Brunswick:Transaction Books,1978).
[53]Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison,The Deindustrialization of America:Plant Closings,Community Abandonment,and the Dismantling of Basic Industry(New York:Basic Books,1982);Peter Dreier,John Mollenkopf,& Todd Swanstrom,Place Matters:Metropolitics for the Twenty-first Century Second ed.(Lawrence,KS:University Press of Kansas,2004).
[54]George A.Gonzalez,The Politics of Air Pollution(Albany:State University of New York Press,2005).
[55]Clarence N.Stone,Economic Growth and Neighborhood Discontent:System Bias in the Urban Renewal Program of Atlanta(Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1976);C.Stone & H.Sanders,The Politics of Urban Redevelopment(Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,1987).
[56]Charles Lindblom,Politics and Markets:The World's Political Economic Systems(New York:Basic Books,1977).
[57]Robert Kuttner,Everything for Sale:The Virtues and Limits of Markets(New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1997).
[58]Stephen K.Bailey,Congress Makes a Law:The Story Behind the Employment Act of 1946(New York:Columbia University Press,1950);G.William Domhoff,The Power Elite and the State:How Policy Is Made in America(Hawthorne,NY:Aldine de Gruyter,1990),Chapter 7.
[59]Sidney Fine,“Sit-Down:The General Motors Strike of 1936—1937”,(Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,1969),p.331;Philip S.Foner,The Great Labor Uprising of 1877(New York:Monad Press,1977),p.65;Philip Y.Nicholson,Labor's Story in the United States(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2004),p.213.
[60]Dan Clawson,Alan Neustadtl,and Denise Scott,Money Talks:Corporate PACs and Political Influence(New York:Basic Books,1992),p.121.