四、小结

四、小结

本章在前文论述的基础上,继续运用社会联盟理论的分析框架,对由该理论视角所划分的二战后美国对外战略演化的第三阶段——自由国际主义战略的瓦解——进行集中分析。本章按照逻辑顺序依次论证20世纪90年代以后美国自由国际主义战略走向瓦解的根源、这种瓦解在实践中的政治运作机制及其相应的研究路径,以及由该战略瓦解所直接决定的冷战后美国对外战略的内在矛盾。

首先,社会联盟理论认为,冷战结束后美国自由国际主义战略最终瓦解的根源在于:第一,20世纪70年代以后东北部—南部稳定多数社会联盟所出现的内在张力开始愈发明显:一方面,由于仍处于经济、社会“转型困境”之中,东北部/太平洋沿岸社会联盟及其政治代言人民主党开始越来越倾向于通过削减军费开支、推行贸易保护主义、减少海外承诺与干涉,以及更为倚重国际制度与多边合作的方式,以一种更低成本的方式维护美国霸权,最终将美国的主要资源用于解决国内的经济、社会问题;另一方面,由于南部和中西部地区在这一时期通过持续经济转型而进一步崛起,代表上述社会联盟利益的共和党则开始越来越倾向于通过增加军费开支、扩大自由贸易以及推进单边主义等方式更为强有力地进行海外扩张,维护进而扩大美国的霸权优势,并试图摆脱多边主义和国际制度的约束。第二,苏联的解体和冷战的终结进一步瓦解了维持美国国内合作的外部诱因,最终加速并稳固了20世纪70年代以后开始形成的国内社会联盟“对等极化”的状况。

其次,在东北部—南部主导性社会联盟走向瓦解的背景下,冷战后美国的国内政治格局便体现为“政治极化”,即东北部/太平洋沿岸以及南部/中西部两大社会联盟在美国对外战略方面几乎无法达成共识,冲突和分歧成为主流。因此,美国对外战略决策背后的政治机制便呈现鲜明的“弱总统、强国会”特征,国会开始走向两极化,府会之争也随之愈演愈烈,分裂政府成为美国政治的常态。基于此,在分析这一阶段美国外交的实践时,采用“国家中心”的研究路径,在地缘政治变量无法对美国外交构成根本性影响的背景下,将国内政治变量视为主要参照,只有这样才能找到冷战后美国对外战略演化背后的逻辑线索。

第三,在实践中,20世纪90年代以后美国自由国际主义战略的瓦解主要表现在四个方面:一是民主、共和两党开始在军费开支问题上产生激烈的冲突和斗争;二是美国的贸易和金融政策开始呈现出自由化与保护主义、国际化与民族主义交互的矛盾特征;三是美国的海外承诺与海外干涉在此期间开始出现扩张与收缩交替的“钟摆”状况;四是美国对国际组织与多边合作的态度也明显地以党派划线。

总之,冷战后美国的对外战略所呈现的这些趋势与特点,使之不仅明显区别于此前的两个阶段,也会对当前和未来美国外交的整体走向产生深刻的影响。在本书的下一章,笔者将从社会联盟理论的视角出发,对奥巴马时代美国对外战略所发生的变化进行梳理和解读,并对当前国际、国内背景下美国外交的未来走向进行简要分析。

注 释

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[2]James Mann,Rise of the Vulcans:The History of Bush’s War Cabinet,New York:Viking,2004;Ivo Daalder and James Lindsay,America Unbound:The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy,Washington,D.C.:Brookings,2003,pp.17—34.

[3]Ivo Daalder and James Lindsay,America Unbound;Francis Fukuyama:Americaat the Crossroads:Democracy,Power,and the Neoconservative Legacy,New Haven:Yale University Press,2006;Gary Hart,The Fourth Power:A Grand Strategy for the United States in the Twenty-first Century,New York:Oxford University Press,2004;Kurt Campell and Michael O’Hanlon,Hard Power:The New Politics of National Security,New York:Basic Books,2006;John Ikenberry,“The End of the Neo-Conservative Moment”,Survival,Vol.46,No.1,2004,pp.7—22;Joshua Busby and Jonathan Monten,“Without Heirs:The Fall of Establishment Internationalism in U.S.Foreign Policy”,Perspectives on Politics,Vol.6,No.3,2008,pp.451—472.

[4]Lawrence Korb and Robert Boorstin,Integrated Power:A National Security Policy for the 21 st Century,Washington,D.C.:Center for American Progress,2005;John Ikenberry and Anne-Marie Slaughter,Forging a World of Liberty under Law:National Security in the 21 st Century,Princeton:Princeton Project on National Security,Princeton University,2006.

[5]G.John Ikenberry,“Is American Multilateralism in Decline?”Perspectives on Politics,Vol.1,No.3,2003,pp.533—550;G.John Ikenberry,“The Security Trap”,Democracy:A Journal of Ideas,Vol.1,No.2,2006,pp.8—19.

[6]Jack Snyder,Robert Shapiro and Yaeli Bloch-Elkon,“Free Hand Abroad,Divide and Rule at Home”,p.158.

[7]Samuel Huntington,“The Erosion of American National Interests”,Foreign Affairs,Vol.76,No.5,1997,pp.28—49;James Schlesinger,“Fragmentation and Hubris:A Shaky Basis for American Leadership”,National Interest,No.49,Fall 1997,pp.3—10;James Lindsay,“The New Apathy:How an Uninterested Public Is Reshaping Foreign Policy”,Foreign Affairs,Vol.79,No.5,2000,pp.2—8.

[8]Alison Mitchell,“Bush and the G.O.P.Congress”,New York Times,May 19,2000.

[9]Tyndall Report,“Foreign News Shrinks in an Era of Globalization”,Los Angeles Times,September 27,2001;Hall’s Magazine Editorial Reports,“Foreign News:Who Gives a Damn?”Columbia Journalism Review,Vol.36,No.4,1997,pp.48—52.

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[11]Francis Fukuyama,“The United State”,Financial Times,September 15—16,2001;John Ikenberry,“American Grand Strategy in the Age of Terror”,Survival,Vol.43,No.4,2001,pp.19—34.

[12]Charles Kupchan,The End of the American Era:U.S.Foreign Policy and the Geopolitics of the Twenty-first Century,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,2002,p.222.

[13]G.John Ikenberry and Anne-Marie Slaughter,Forging a World of Liberty under Law,p.59.

[14]Earl Black and Merle Black,Divided America:The Ferocious Power Struggle in American Politics,New York:Simon and Schuster,2007;Gary Jacobson,“Polarized Politics and the 2004 Congressional and Presidential Elections”,Political Science Quarterly,Vol.120,No.2,2005,pp.199—218;Robert Erikson,Gerald Wright and John McIver,“Public Opinion in the States:A Quarter Century of Change and Stability”,in Jeffrey Cohen,ed.,Public Opinion in State Politics,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2005,pp.229—253.

[15]Earl Black and Merle Black,Politics and Society in the South,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1987;Martin Wattenberg,“The Building of a Republican Regional Base in the South:The Elephant Crosses the Mason-Dixon Line”,pp.424—431.

[16]Nicole Mellow,“A House Divided:Regional Conflicts,Coalitions,and Partisanship in Postwar America”,Ph.D.dissertation,University of Texas at Austin,2003,pp.25—27.

[17]Helzi Noponen,Julie Graham and Ann Markusen,eds.,Trading Industries,Trading Regions,New York:Guilford,1993;Peter Eisinger and Charles Smith,“Globalization and Metropolitan Well-Being in the United States”,Social Science Quarterly,Vol.81,No.2,2000,pp.634—644.

[18]Gordon Clark,“NAFTA—Clinton’s Victory,Organized Labor’s Loss”,Political Geography,Vol.13,No.4,1994,pp.377—384;Wendy Schiller,“Trade Politics in the American Congress:A Study of the Interaction of Political Geography and Interest Group Behavior”,Political Geography,Vol.18,No.7,1999,pp.769—789.

[19]William Frey,“Metropolitan Magnets for Domestic and International Migration”,Washington,D.C.:Brookings,October 2003.

[20]Nancy Roman,“Both Sides of the Aisle:A Call for Bipartisan Foreign Policy”,Special Report,No.9,New York:Council on Foreign Relations,September 2005.

[21]参见该组织网站:http://www.psaonline.org.2016-01-22。

[22]Barbara Sinclair,Party Wars:Polarization and the Politics of National Policy Making,Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2006;Richard Fleisher and John Bond,“The Shrinking Middle in the U.S.Congress”,British Journal of Political Science,Vol.34,No.3,2004,pp.429—451;Jacob Hacker and Paul Pierson,Off Center:The Republican Revolution and the Erosion of American Democracy,New Haven:Yale University Press,2005.

[23]Jeffrey Stonecash,Mark Brewer and Mack Mariani,Diverging Parties:Social Change,Realignment,and Party Polarization,Boulder:Westview,2003;Sean Theriault,“Party Polarization in the U.S.Congress:Member Replacement and Member Adaptation”,Party Politics,Vol.12,No.4,2006,pp.483—503.

[24]Elizabeth Drew,Showdown:The Struggle between the Gingrich Congress and the Clinton White House,New York:Simon and Schuster,1996。此处的金里奇指的是共和党保守派的代表人物纽特·金里奇(Newt Gingrich)。1994年美国国会中期选举后,共和党取得了众议院的多数地位,金里奇则出任众议院议长一职。在克林顿政府的剩余任内,白宫与国会在内政外交等一系列问题上产生了激烈的斗争。

[25]David Rohde,Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1991.

[26]Nolan McCarty,Keith Poole and Howard Rosenthal,Polarized America:The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches,Cambridge:MIT Press,2006.

[27]“Changes in U.S.Family Finances from 2007 to 2010:Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances”,Federal Reserve Bulletin,Vol.98,No.2,2012,p.17.

[28]Annalyn Gensky,“How the Middle Class became Underclass”,http://money.cnn.com/2011/02/16/news/economy/middle_class/index.html.2015-11-23。

[29]James Shoch,Trading Blows:Party Competition and U.S.Trade Policy in a Globalizing Era,Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,2000.

[30]Congressional Research Service,“Membership of the 109th Congress:A Profile”,http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RS22007.pdf.2016-01-06;Andrea Stone,“For a Few in Congress,War Is a Family Concern”,USA Today,December 6,2004;Joshua Busby and Jonathan Monten,“Without Heirs:The Fall of Establishment Internationalism in U.S.Foreign Policy”,pp.451—472.

[31]Norman Ornstein,Thomas Mann and Michael Maldin,Vital Statistics on Congress,2005—2006,Washington,D.C.:Brookings,2006.

[32]Benjamin Page and Marshall Bouton,The Foreign Policy Disconnect:What Americans Want from Our Leaders but Don’t Get,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2006;Steven Kull and I.M.Destler,Misreading the Public:The Myth of a New Isolationism,Washington,D.C.:Brookings,1999.

[33]Robert Shapiro and Yaeli Block-Elkon,“Political Polarization and the Rational Public”,in Morton Halperin,Jeffrey Laurenti,Peter Rundlet and Spencer Boyer,eds.,Power and Superpower:Global Leadership and Exceptionalism in the 21 st Century,New York:Century Foundation Press,2007,p.66.

[34]Gary Jacobson,A Divider,Not a Uniter:George W.Bush and the American People,New York:Pearson Longman,2007,pp.222—236.

[35]Pew Research Center for the People and the Press,“Politics and Values in a 51%—48%Nation:National Security More Linked with Partisan Affiliation”,January 24,2005,http://peoplepress.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID?236.2016-01-07.

[36]Zogby International,“UPI/Zogby Poll:54%Lack Confidence in Bush’s Ability as Commander in Chief”,August 1,2007,http://www.zogby.com/news/Readnews.dbm?ID=1343.2016-01-14.

[37]Colin Dueck:Hard Line:The Republican Party and U.S.Foreign Policy Since World War II,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2010,chapter 8;David MacDonald,Dirk Nabers and Robert Patnam,eds.,The Bush Leadership,the Power of Ideas,and the War on Terror,Burlington:Ashgate Publishing Company,2012;Jesus Velasco,Neoconservatives in U.S.Foreign Policy under Ronald Reagan and George W.Bush,Washington,D.C.:Woodrow Wilson Center Press,2010,chapter 9;Jack Matlock,Superpower Illusions:How Myths and Ideologies Led America Astray,and How to Return to Reality,New Haven:Yale University Press,2010,chapters 8—9;Robert Jervis,American Foreign Policy in a New Era,New York:Routledge,2005.

[38]Peter Trubowitz,Politics and Strategy,p.98.

[39]Charles Kupchan and Peter Trubowitz,“Dead Center:The Demise of LiberalInternationalism in the United States”,p.23.

[40]Tom Daschle,“The Water’s Edge”,Foreign Policy,No.103,1996,pp.4—5.

[41]Charles Kupchan,The End of the American Era,p.216;Philip Gordon and Jeremy Shapiro,Allies at War:America,Europe,and the Crisis over Iraq,New York:McGraw-Hill,2004,pp.31—45.

[42]John Bolton,“Should We Take Global Governance Seriously?”Chicago Journal of International Law,Vol.1,No.2,2000,p.26.

[43]2000财年时,美国的军费开支约为3 000亿美元,而到2005年时,这一数字已经超过5 000亿美元。

[44]“单极世界”的说法引自William Wohlforth,“The Stability of a Unipolar World”,International Security,Vol.24,No.1,1999,pp.5—41.

[45]George W.Bush,acceptance speech,Republican National Convention,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,August 3,2000,in Washington Post,August 4,2000.

[46]Thomas Edsall,Building the Red America:The New Conservative Coalition and the Drive for Permanent Power,New York:Basic Books,2006,pp.51—77.

[47]Jack Snyder,Robert Shapiro,and Yaeli Bloch-Elkon,“Free Hand Abroad,Divide and Rule at Home”,pp.168—176.

[48]Sheldon Alberts,“Candidates Address‘Security Moms’:Bush Warned Kerry Would‘Invite Disaster’”,Gazette(Montreal),October 19,2004.

[49]引自Mark Silva,“Cheney Back on the Campaign Trail as GOP’s‘Attack Dog’”,Chicago Tribune,August 18,2006。

[50]“America’s Angry Election”,Economics,January 3,2005,p.7.

[51]Michael Abramowitz,“Bush Says‘America Loses’under Democrats”,Washington Post,October 30,2006.

[52]Zachary Goldfarb,“Democratic Wave in Congress Further Erodes Moderation in GOP”,Washington Post,December 7,2006.

[53]Michael Luo,“Antiwar Groups Use New Clout to Influence Democrats on Iraq”,New York Times,May 6,2007.(https://www.daowen.com)

[54]参见http://www.voteview.com/.2016-01-25。

[55]Andrew Butfoy,“The Rise and Fall of Missile Diplomacy?President Clinton and the‘Revolution in Military Affairs’in Retrospect”,Australian Journal of Politics and History,Vol.52,No.1,2006,p.99.

[56]James Boys,Clinton’s Grand Strategy:US Foreign Policy in a post-Cold War World,New York:Bloomsbury,2015,p.3.

[57]就在克林顿刚刚赢得1992年总统大选之际,他与国会中的民主党主要人物进行了一次会面,同他们围绕接下来的施政重点进行交流。当众议院外交事务委员会主席、来自印第安纳州的众议员李·汉密尔顿(Lee Hamilton)强调美国需要高度警惕后冷战时代俄罗斯和中国可能造成的战略威胁时,克林顿突然打断了他,说“利安,在我的整个竞选过程中,除了少数好事的媒体以外,根本没有人谈论任何外交政策问题。”参见David Halberstam,War in a Time of Peace:Bush,Clinton,and the Generals,New York:Simon and Schuster,2001,p.168。

[58]Robert J.Art,A Grand Strategy for America,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2003.

[59]Allen Schick,“‘A Surplus,If We Can Keep It’:How the Federal Budget Surplus Happened”,Brookings Review,Vol.18,No.1,2000,p.38.

[60]Michael Cox,U.S.Foreign Policy after the Cold War:Superpower without a Mission?London:Royal Institute of International Affairs,1995;Stephen Walt,“Two Cheers for Clinton’s Foreign Policy”,Foreign Affairs,Vol.79,No.2,2000,pp.63—79;Andrew Butfoy,“The Rise and Fall of Missile Diplomacy?President Clinton and the‘Revolution in Military Affairs’in Retrospect”,p.99;Allen Schick,The Federal Budget:Politics,Policy,Process,Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,2000.

[61]Ronald Krebs and Jennifer Lobasz,“Fixing the Meaning of 9/11:Hegemony,Coercion,and the Road to War in Iraq”,Security Studies,Vol.16,No.3,2007,pp.409—451;Stephen Skowronek,Presidential Leadership in Political Time:Reprise and Reappraisal,Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,2008,p.139.

[62]Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2010,p.136.

[63]G.John Ikenberry,“Is American Multilateralism in Decline?”,pp.533—550;Lisa Martin,“Self-Binding:How America Benefits from Multilateralism and the Costs We Bear by Going It Alone in a Risky New Century”,Harvard Magazine,Vol.107,No.1,2004,pp.33—36;David Skidmore,“Understanding the Unilateralist Turn in U.S.Foreign Policy”,Foreign Policy Analysis,Vol.1,No.2,2005,p.223;Colin Dueck,Reluctant Crusaders:Power,Culture,and Change in American Grand Strategy,p.152.

[64]Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,pp.41—57.

[65]Peter Trubowitz,Politics and Strategy:Partisan Ambition and American Statecraft,p.125.

[66]Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,p.76.

[67]Donald Kagan and Frederick Kagan,While America Sleeps:Self-Delusion,Military Weakness,and the Threat to Peace Today,New York:St.Martin’s Griffin,2000.

[68]以上数据引自刘德斌主编:《国际关系史》,高等教育出版社2003年版,第544页。

[69][美]比尔·克林顿:《希望与历史之间:迎接21世纪对美国的挑战》,金灿荣等译,海南出版社1997年版,第2、13—41、277页。

[70]Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,p.85.

[71]Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,pp.82—86.

[72]Peter Trubowitz,Politics and Strategy:Partisan Ambition and American Statecraft,p.102.

[73]Gary Jacobson,A Divider,Not a Uniter:George W.Bush and the American People;Robert Shapiro and Yaeli Block-Elkon,“Political Polarization and the Rational Public”,pp.49—68;Peter Reinhart,“When Politics No Longer Stops at the Water’s Edge:Partisan Polarization and Foreign Policy”,in Pietro Nivola and David Brady,eds.,Red and Blue Nation?Consequences and Correction of America’s Polarized Politics,Vol.2,Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,2008,pp.151—167.

[74]John Muller,“Simplicity and Spook:Terrorism and the Dynamics of Threat Exaggeration”,International Studies Perspective,Vol.6,No.2,2005,pp.208—234.

[75]Jack Snyder,Robert Shapiro and Yaeli Bloch-Elkon,“Free Hand Abroad,Divide and Rule at Home”,pp.168—176.

[76]Peter Katzenstein and Robert Keohane,eds.,Anti-Americanisms,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2007.

[77]Ronald Brownstein,The Second Civil War:How Extreme Partisanship has Paralyzed Washington and Polarized America,Michael Barone,“The 49 PercentNation”,National Journal,June 9,2001,pp.1710—1716;Nicole Mellow,The State of Disunion:Regional Sources of Modern American Partisanship,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2008.

[78]唐斯定律指的是,在一个两党竞争的选举结构下,政治立场越靠近中间的候选人胜算越大,因为在任何一个社会中,温和派的人数最多,所以越靠近中间立场就越能覆盖尽可能多的选民;其结果是,两党在政策立场上会趋同。参见[美]安东尼·唐斯:《民主的经济理论》,姚洋等译,上海世纪出版集团2005年版,第4章。冷战后美国的政治、社会结构对于该定律的颠覆,参见Andrew Gelman,David Park et al.,Red State,Blue State,Rich State,Poor State,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2008,p.3。

[79]尤其是,战争的持续进行使美国的债务到2007年时达到创纪录的9万亿美元,进而使该问题成了民主党人反击布什的有力工具。参见Daniel Wirls,Irrational Security:The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama,p.135;Stephen Skowronek,Presidential Leadership in Political Time,p.139。

[80]Gary Jacobson,A Divider,Not a Uniter:George W.Bush and the American People.

[81]Hannah Goble and Peter Holm,“Breaking Bonds?The Iraq War and the Loss of the Republican Dominance in National Security”,Political Research Quarterly,Vol.62,No.2,2009,pp.215—229.

[82]正如前文已经指出的,这就是克林顿致力于走所谓“第三条道路”的根本原因。然而遗憾的是,克林顿的努力并未取得预期效果,尤其是1994年中期选举中共和党控制了国会两院后,政治极化反而愈演愈烈。这也就进一步证明了本书论点,即个人在美国对外战略演化的历史进程中并不具备任何实质性的主观能动空间,社会利益及其变迁才是美国外交的根本动力和决定因素。这就是克林顿“逆历史潮流而动”所得出的经验教训。

[83][美]比尔·克林顿:《希望与历史之间:迎接21世纪对美国的挑战》,第22页。

[84]Susan Collins and Barry Bosworth,eds.,The New GATT:Implications for the United States,Washington,D.C.:The Brookings Institution,1994,pp.63—78.

[85]民主党议员的反对主要源自其所代表的社会利益。这些反对意见主要有:(1)认为WTO的一国一票制威胁美国的主导地位,同时争端解决机制将约束美国对于国内立法的运用;(2)认为WTO的劳工标准威胁到美国蓝领工人的就业机会;(3)认为贸易自由化在卫生、安全及健康等方面的规定降低了美国社会的生活质量和水平。

[86]李巍:《区域霸权与区域性公共产品:对北美地区主义的一种解释》,载张建新主编:《地域性公共产品与区域治理》,上海人民出版社2008年版。

[87][美]罗伯特·吉尔平:《全球资本主义的挑战》,杨宇光等译,上海世纪出版集团2001年版,第244页。

[88]Edward Lincoln,Troubled Times:U.S.-Japan Trade Relations in the 1990s,Washington,D.C.:The Brookings Institution,1999,chapter 4.

[89]屠新泉:《党派政治与美国贸易政策的变迁》,《美国研究》2007年第4期,第78页。

[90]关于这一问题的专门性分析,可参见[美]杰弗里·弗里登:《经济一体化与美国的货币政策政治》,载罗伯特·基欧汉、海伦·米尔纳主编:《国际化与国内政治》,姜鹏、董素华译,北京大学出版社2003年版,第135—140页。

[91]Alan Beattie and Frances Williams,“US Blamed as Trade Talks End in Acrimony”,Financial Times,July 24,2006.

[92]William Cline,“The Case for a New Plaza Agreement”,Policy Briefs of Institute for International Economics,Number PB 05-4,December 2005,p.2.

[93]The Trade Policy Study Group,A New Trade Policy for the United States,Washington,D.C.:Institute for International Economics,December 2008,pp.9—10.

[94]Colin Dueck,Reluctant Crusaders:Power,Culture,and Change in American Grand Strategy,p.137.

[95]这种现象的根源在于冷战后美国对外战略的目标不再那么清晰,因此公众特别是民主党的支持者不愿再像冷战时期那样支持成本高昂的对外干涉行动。参见Peter Trubowitz,Politics and Strategy,p.124。

[96]参见Security Council Resolution 814,March 26,1993,UNHCR,http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vt-x/rwmain?docid=3b00f21143.2016-01-22。

[97]Donatella Lorch,“What Began as a Mission of Mercy Closes with Little Ceremony”,New York Times,March 26,1994.

[98]Barry Blechman and Tamara Cofman Wittes,“Defining Moment:The Threat and Use of Force in American Foreign Policy”,Political Science Quarterly,Vol.114,No.1,1999,p.21.

[99]Mark Danner,“Clinton,the UN,and the Bosnian Disaster”,New York Review of Books,December 18,1997,pp.68,75—76;James Gow,Triumph of the Lack of Will:International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War,New York:Columbia University Press,1997,pp.208,218.

[100]David Halberstam,War in a Time of Peace:Bush,Clinton,and the Generals,New York:Simon and Schuster,2001,pp.302,360;Bob Woodward,The Choice,New York:Simon and Schuster,1996,pp.256—257,267.

[101]Wesley Clark,Waging Modern War,New York:Public Affairs,2001,p.206.

[102]Daniel Byman and Matthew Waxman,“Kosovo and the Great Air Power Debate”,International Security,Vol.24,No.4,2000,pp.5—38;Stephen Hosmer,The Conflict over Kosovo:Why Milosevic Decided to Settle When He Did,Santa Monica:RAND,2001.

[103]Wesley Clark,Waging Modern War,pp.438—440;David Halberstam,War in a Time of Peace,p.475.

[104]Ivo Daalder and Michael O’Hanlon,Winning Ugly:NATO’s War to Save Kosovo,Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,2000,pp.151—153,171.

[105]正如前文反复提到的,美国的海外干涉行为在克林顿与布什两任总统治下所呈现的矛盾性无法用体系原因解释,因为恐怖主义造成的影响不足以改变国际体系结构,更不足以改变美国整体的对外战略方向,因此其原因只能用国内政治来解释。同样的观点可参见Peter Trubowitz,Politics and Strategy,p.100;Colin Dueck,Reluctant Crusaders,p.153。

[106]President Bush,Address to a Joint Session of Congress,September 20,2001,www.whitehouse.gov/news/re-leases/2001/09/20010920-8.html.2016-01-27。

[107]Michael Noonan and John Hillen,“The Promise of Decisive Action”,Orbis,Vol.46,No.2,2002,pp.229—246.

[108]President Bush,State of the Union Address,January 29,2002,www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html.2016-01-29。

[109]The White House,The National Security Strategy of the United States of America,Washington,D.C.:GPO,2002,pp.13—28.

[110]U.S.Department of Defense,www.defenselink.mil/news/Feb2003/b02032003_bt044-03.html.2016-02-01;Michael O’Hanlon,Defense Policy Choices of the Bush Administration,Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,2002,p.14.

[111]Ernest Evans,“The U.S.Military and Peacekeeping Operations”,World Affairs,Vol.155,No.4,1993,pp.143—147.

[112]Richard Gardner,“Practical Internationalism”,Foreign Affairs,Vol.66,No.4,1988,pp.827—845.