本章小结
本章对话语作为(不)安全实践的问题进行了讨论。它扼要叙述了话语作为(不)安全实践活动这一基本认识所依赖的哲学基础,侧重说明“言语行动”理论所提出的见识,在批评性地理解哥本哈根学派有关“安全化”概念的基础上,指出一定的对外及安全政策话语,其含义不仅需要从一定的(不)安全环境中去理解,而且这类话语本身构成了(不)安全实践的一部分。也就是说,一定的安全话语既可以是建构安全条件的工具,也可以是制造不安全文化的来源。国际政治话语具有社会互动性,但同时也应该意识到,处于强势地位的话语更具有主导性和关键性。
本章还从话语和身份的角度说明了美国对外及安全政策制定过程乃是寻找、界定和叙述外来“安全威胁”的过程,把作为“他者”的敌人和威胁描述为“邪恶”者乃是美国对外政策话语中一个历史现象。在理解美国对外政策制定过程中安全威胁建构的性质方面,本章指出,这种安全威胁建构乃是美国政治家和决策者的一种政治战略选择。
如果说语言使用与安全稳定和冲突之间存在着一定的因果关系,那么制定良好的语言政策/战略,乃是确保国际关系稳定及和谐,避免战争与冲突的一个不可忽视的要素。作为社会实践,语言使用在国际关系中乃是一种具有伦理和规范价值的实践活动。倘若安全冲突和稳定均与语言使用之间存在着一定的因果联系,那么,有关语言政策/战略的问题,包括如何避免使用引起安全冲突的语言,应该成为国际关系研究的一个重要方面。
【注释】
[1]Henrik Larsen,“Discourse analysis in the study of European foreign policy”,in Ben Tonra and Thomas Christiansen(eds.),Rethinking European Union Foreign Policy(Manchester:Manchester University Press,2004),p.64.
[2]可参阅Bill McSweeney,Security,Identity and Interests:A Sociology of International Relations,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004;Richard Higgot,“US Foreign Policy and the‘Securitization’of Economic Globalization”,International Politics,Vol.24,2004;Thierry Balzacq,“The Three Faces of Securitization:Political Agency,Audience and Context”,European Journal of International Relations,Vol.11,No.2,2005;Holger Stritzel,“Towards a Theory of Securitization:Copenhagen and Beyond”,European Journal of International Relations,Vol.13,No.3,2007。
[3]Barry Buzan and Ole Waever,Regions and Powers,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003,p.491.
[4]Ole Waever,“Securitization and Desecuritization”,in R.D.Lipschutz(ed.),On Security,New York:Columbia University Press,1995,p.75,亦见Barry Buzan,Ole Waever,Jaap de Wilde,Security:A New Framework for Analysis,Boulder:Lynne Rienner Publishers,1998。
[5]Barry Buzan,Ole Waever,Jaap de Wilde,Security:A New Framework for Analysis,Boulder:Lynne Rienner Publishers,1998,p.26.
[6]可参阅潘亚玲:《“9·11”后布什政府对“敌人”的建构》,载于《外交评论》,2007年第7期;李菁华:《方法与应用:话语分析与美国公众外交》,载于《世界经济与政治》,2008年第5期;孙吉胜:《国际关系中语言与意义的建构——伊拉克战争解析》,载于《世界经济与政治》,2009年第5期。
[7]参阅David Campbell,Writing Security:United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity,Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1992;Walter L.Hixson,The Myth of American Diplomacy:National Identity and U.S.Foreign Policy,New Haven:Yale University Press,2008。
[8]John Winthrop,“A Model of Christian Charity”,in Ronald Gottes et al.:The Norton Anthology of American Literature(Volume 1),New York:W.W.Norton &Company,1977,p.24.
[9]Herman Melville,White-Jacket(1850),转引自Robert Jewett and John Shelton Lawrence,Captain America and the Crusade against Evil:The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism,Cambridge:Wm.B.Berdmans Publishing Co.,2003,p.1。
[10]Congressional Record,56th Congress,1st Session,Vol.33,p.711,转引自Robert Jewett and John Shelton Lawrence,Captain America and the Crusade against Evil:The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism,Cambridge:Wm.B.Berdmans Publishing Co.,2003,pp.3 4。
[11]Public Papers of the President of the United States,Ronald Regan,1983,Book I,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1984,p.152.
[12]Woodrow Wilson:“First Inaugural Address”(March 4,1913),http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/woodrowwilsonfirstinaugural.htm,最后浏览日期:2011年3月15日。
[13]Franklin D.Roosevelt:“Third Inaugural Address”(January 20,1941),http://www.barleby.com/124/pres51.html.
[14]Harry Truman:“Broadcast to the American People Announcing the Surrender of Germany”(May 8,1945),http://www.trumanlibrary.org/index.php,最后浏览日期:2011年3月15日。
[15]Harry Truman:“The Truman Doctrine”,a speech delivered before a Joint Session of Congress(March 12,1947),http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/harrystrumantrumandoctrine.html,最后浏览日期:2011年3月15日。
[16]Michael Schaller,Reckoning with Reagan:America and Its President in the 1980s,New York:Oxford University Press,1992,p.120;亦见Beth A.Fischer,The Reagan Reversal:Foreign Policy and the End of the Cold War,Columbia:University of Missouri Press,1997,pp.34,96。
[17]Ronald Regan:“Address to British Parliament”(June 8,1982),http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganbritishparliament.html,最后浏览日期:2012年9月15日。
[18]Ronald Regan:“Remarks at the Annual convention of the National Association of Evangelicals”(March 8,1983),http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.html,最后浏览日期:2012年9月15日。
[19]Robert Jewett and John Shelton Lawrence,Captain America and the Crusade against Evil:The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism,Cambridge:Wm.B.Berdmans Publishing Co.,2003,p.4;Peter J.Wallison,Ronald Reagan:The Power of Conviction and the Success of His Presidency,Oxford:Westview Press,2004,p.286.(https://www.daowen.com)
[20]Herbert S.Parmet,George Bush:The Life of a Lone Star Yankee,New Brumswick:Transaction Publishers,2001,pp.442 476.
[21]参阅David Ryan,U.S.Foreign Policy in World History,London:Routledge,2000。
[22]George W.Bush,“National Day of Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11,2001”(September 14,2001),http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010913-7.html,最后浏览日期:2011年10月20日。
[23]“George W Bush Delivers State of the Union Address”(January 29,2002),http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html,最后浏览日期:2011年10月20日。
[24]David Frum,The Right Man:The Surprise Presidency George W.Bush,New York:Random House,2003.
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[26]John W.Dietrich(ed.),The George W.Bush Foreign Policy Reader:Presidential Speeches with Commentary,New York:M.E.Sharp,2005,p.46.
[27]参阅Mel Gurtov,Superpower on Crusade:The Bush Doctrine in US Foreign Policy,Boulder:Lynne Rienner Publishers,2006,p.146;Warren I.Cohen,America’s Failing Empire:U.S.Foreign Relations since the Cold War,Malden:Blackwell Publishing,2005,p.167。
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[29]“Remarks by the President at the Acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize”,December 10,2009.http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-presidentacceptance-nobel-peace-prize,最后浏览日期:2012年6月15日。
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[31]George Simmel,Conflict &the Web of Group Affiliations(trans.By Kurt H.Wolff &Reinhard Bendix),New York:Free Press,1964,p.15.
[32]Lewis A.Coser,The Functions of Social Conflicts,Glencoe:Free Press,1956,p.105.
[33]Carl Schmitt,The Concept of the Political(translated and introduced by George Schwab with a new foreword by Tracy B.Strong),Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1996(1932),p.27.
[34]Rodney Barker,Making Enemies,Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2007,p.19.
[35]Rodney Barker,Making Enemies,Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2007,p.61.
[36]Jef Huysmans,The Politics of Insecurity,London:Routledge,2006,p.146.
[37]Rodney Barker,Making Enemies,Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2007,p.61.
[38]K.M.Fierke,Diplomatic Interventions:Conflict and Change in a Globalizing World,Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2005,p.128.
[39]Jef Huysmans,The Politics of Insecurity,London:Routledge,2006,p.145.
[40]Ronald R.Krebs and Patrick Thaddeus Jackson,“Twisting Tongues and Twisting Arms:The Power of Political Rhetoric”,European Journal of International Relations,Vol.13,Vol.1,2007,p.42.
[41]Mark Laffey and Jutta Weldes,“Beyond Belief:Ideas and Symbolic Technologies in the Study of International Relations”,European Journal of International Relations,Vol.3,No.2,1997.