结 语
18世纪,英国确立了君主立宪制度后,资本主义工商业得到飞速发展,自然对城乡交通也提出了更高的要求。而此时的英格兰大多仍然沿用中世纪甚至罗马时期的道路,因义务修路的疏漏,道路常常狭窄且泥泞不堪,已经无法满足新时代下的交通需求。而在议会圈地中,乡村社会的成员和圈地委员正是基于以上考虑,着手在教区修建新路、维护旧路。在这一过程中,地方土地所有者通过拟定圈地法案,明确了在道路铺设的过程中的道路规制和个人的权利义务。因此,铺设道路的过程从起初就是以制度化的形式开展的,而这一模式也延续到了对当地居民与新的道路规划之间的矛盾处理中。在集体性事业中,部分个人利益的牺牲是在所难免的,因此也出现了一些对新建道路的不满和矛盾。
面对过程中出现的矛盾,乡村社会也自有一套反应和处理模式。在资金问题上,圈地委员和利益相关人相互妥协,提出了分期付款的方式,并且,地方社会的借贷也可以满足筹集资金的需要;而在考虑到个人利益受损的情况时,地方法庭、圈地委员和当地民众自发形成了一种监督与平衡的模式,以圈地法案为标准,在道路修建的多个方面进行讨论与修正;并且,是否铺设新道路,新旧道路比例如何也会依据地方实际因地制宜,虽与圈地委员的个人风格也有相关,但更多考虑地还是合乎民情,能够将投资利益最大化。因此,在对于道路问题的矛盾处理上,乡村社会所采用的模式是规范而温和的,以标准化的条文和法令疏导矛盾,以温和的手段和一定量的补偿来缓解矛盾,最终完成了道路体系的革新。
同时,这一体系和矛盾处理模式,通过道路的特殊性渗入教区居民的日常生活和心理感观方面,以一种全新的秩序感和现代感代替了原先自中世纪传承的乡村情怀:教区当中紧密的人地联系、约定俗成的公共权利、宗教氛围和农业文化的巧妙融合,都被一种现代性的新文化所取代。而这新兴的文化,强调的不再是那些充满田园牧歌情调和宗教氛围的中世纪思想,而是井然有序的农业劳动、泾渭分明的个人范围、以法律至上的义务意识,与大量涌现的新技术、新发明互为因果,改变了基层社会的生产生活方式。如果说17世纪社会上层的政治巨变并未触动到英格兰社会的中下阶层,那随后而来的农业、工业和交通领域的变迁无疑震动了这个社会的基柱。而道路的重建与新修,则更是以其无言的方式,庄重地宣告着一个事实——英国正在向一个真正的现代化国家和世界意义上的强国大步迈进。
【注释】
[1]就英国历史而言,“18世纪”通常指1689—1815年这一百多年时间,1688年“光荣革命”被认为是一个新时代的起点,而1815年反法战争的结束可算作是这个时代的终结,英法两国一百多年的殖民争霸告一段落,“日不落帝国”初见雏形。引自钱乘旦主编:《英国通史(第四卷)》,南京:江苏人民出版社,2016年,前言1页。
[2]William H.McNeill&ed.,World Environmental History,Massachusetts:Berkshire Publishing Group LLC,2011,p.192.
[3]沈琦:《中世纪英格兰道路网的形成和维护》,《华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)》2012年第5期,第126—132页。
[4]William Albert,The Turnpike Road System in England,1663-1840,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1972.
[5]Theo Barker and Dorian Gerhold,The Rise and Rise of Road Transport,1700 1900,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1993.
[6]沈琦:《中世纪英格兰道路网的形成和维护》;沈琦:《教区、收费信托与近代英国道路治理体系变革》,《历史研究》2017年第3期,第93—113页。
[7]E.C.K.Gonner,Common Land and Inclosure,London:Macmillam and Co.Limited,1912;W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920.
[8]J.D.Chambers&G.E.Mingay,The Agricultural Revolution,1750 1880,London:B T BATSFORD LTD,1966.
[9]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750-1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997.
[10][英]W.G.霍斯金斯:《英格兰景观的形成》,梅雪芹、刘梦霏译,北京:商务印书馆,2018年。
[11]Hannah Kate Sackett,The Remaking of the English Landscape:An Archaeology of Enclosure,Thesis Submitted for the Degree of the Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester,2004.
[12]W.G.Hoskins&R.A.McKinley,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Le-icestershire,Volume 3,London:Oxford University Press,1955,pp.62-68.
[13]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.48.
[14]W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920,p.159.
[15]Analysis of an act of 1795,W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920,p.315.
[16]沈琦:《教区、收费信托与近代英国道路治理体系变革》。
[17]William Albert,The Turnpike Road System in England,1663-1840,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1972,pp.14-15.
[18]Great Britain.Parliament.An act for dividing and inclosing a certain moor or common,within the Manor of Evenwood,and Chapelry of Saint Helens Auckland,and County of Durham.[London],[1762].Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Gale.Nanjing University.20 June 2019.〈http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupName=nju&tabID=T001&docId=CW125617595&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticles&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE〉.
[19]Great Britain.Parliament.An act for dividing and inclosing a certain common called Holland Ward,otherwise Hollin Ward,in the county of Derby.[London],[1771].Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Gale.Nanjing University.20 June 2019.〈http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroup Name=nju&tabID=T001&docId=CW124371568&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticles&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE〉.
[20]Great Britain.Parliament.An act for dividing and inclosing a certain moor,or Common,called Middlewood Moor,or Ushaw Moor,within the Manor of Lanchester,in the County of Durham.[London],[1762].Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Gale.Nanjing University.20 June 2019.〈http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupName=nju&tabID=T001&docId=CW124406683&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticles&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE〉.
[21]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.48.
[22]W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920,pp.165 166.
[23]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Durham,Volume 2,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.360.
[24]J.D.Chambers&G.E.Mingay,The Agricultural Revolution,1750-1880,London:B T BATSFORD LTD,1966,p.85.
[25]W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920,p.173.但也有一些教区新修建了较原先数量更多的道路,但其中往往以私人道路和步行道为多,如诺顿教区(Bishop Norton)在圈地中修建了3条公共道路,8条私人道路和一些步行道。见Eleanor&Rex C Russell,Making New Landscapes in Lincolnshire,Lincolnshire:G.W.Belton,1983,p.29
[26]W.H.R.Curtler,The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1920,p.275.
[27]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Bedfordshire,Volume 2,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.99.
[28]Hannah Kate Sackett,The Remaking of the English Landscape:An Archaeology of Enclosure,ThesisSubmitted for the Degree of the Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester,2004,p.176.
[29]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,pp.103-109.
[30]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.112.
[31]J.D.Chambers&G.E.Mingay,The Agricultural Revolution,1750 1880,London:B T BATSFORD LTD,1966,p.82.
[32]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750-1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,pp.113 114.
[33]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Herefordshire,Volume 1,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.408.
[34]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Gloucestershire,Volume 2,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.240.
[35]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750-1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.116.
[36]Great Britain.Parliament.An act for dividing and inclosing a certain common parcel of waste ground or moor,situate in the liberty of Darley,in the county of Derby,called Darley Common.[London],[1766].Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Gale.Nanjing University.20 June 2019.〈http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupName=nju&tabID=T001&docId=CW124503851&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticles&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE〉.
[37]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750-1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.107.
[38]沈琦:《教区、收费信托与近代英国道路治理体系变革》。
[39]William Albert,The Turnpike Road System in England,1663 1840,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1972,p.15.
[40]E.C.K.Gonner,Common Land and Inclosure,London:Macmillam and Co.Limited,1912,p.83.
[41]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750-1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.69.
[42]Great Britain.Parliament.An act for dividing and inclosing a certain common,moor,or tract of waste land,within the barony or manor of Bulbeck,in the county of Northumberland.[London],[1765].Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Gale.Nanjing University.20 June 2019.〈http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupName=nju&tabID=T001&docId=CW124963023&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticles&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE〉.
[43]J.D.Chambers&G.E.Mingay,The Agricultural Revolution,1750-1880,London:B T BATSFORD LTD,1966,p.98.
[44]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.36.
[45]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Durham,Volume 2,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.244.
[46]William Page,The Victoria History of the Counties of England:A History of Buckinghamshire,Volume 2,London:Archibald Constable and Company Limited,p.104.
[47]G.E.Mingay,Parliamentary Enclosure in England:An Introduction to its Causes,Incidence and Impact 1750 1850,New York:Addison Wesley Longman,1997,p.32.