Chapter　2　Sacred flows

Their Lord will guide them by their faith；there shall flow from beneath them rivers in gardens of bliss.

The Koran 10.9

Throughout history，the flow of rivers has nurtured life and spread fertility to countless societies while also，on occasion，bringing death and devastation.This dual function，as a force of nature that sustains life but also takes it away，has generated cultural echoes in groups all over the world.The powerful hold that rivers have over humankind has become embedded in innumerable traditions，myths，and sacred rituals through the ages.

Mythical rivers

In Greek mythology，the land of the dead，or underworld，was surrounded by five rivers.These were the Acheron（the river of woe），Cocytus（the river of lamentation），Phlegethon（the river of fire），Lethe（the river of forgetfulness），and Styx（the river of hate）.When somebody died，the spirit of the dead was ferried across the water（in some cases the Acheron，in others the Styx）by the boatman，on payment of a fee.Each new arrival in the underworld was judged，determined to be good or bad，and transferred either to a place of torment or to the Elysian Fields that can be equated with Paradise.Residents of the Elysian Fields had the possibility of rebirth once their previous life had been forgotten，a feat achieved by drinking the waters of the River Lethe.

Miraculous powers were associated with the River Styx.Its waters were used by the gods to seal unbreakable oaths，and the Greek hero Achilles was immersed in the river as a child，making him entirely invulnerable except for the spot on his heel where his mother held him for his dip.Achilles eventually lost his life when a poisoned arrow hit him in this heel，an episode that spawned the expression Achilles’heel’，still used to describe a person's principal weakness.

Traversing a river to the underworld appears in other belief systems.The Sanzu River is the river to cross in the Japanese Buddhist tradition，and the Vaitarna River serves the same purpose in several Hindu religious texts，although only for sinners（those who do good deeds in life do not have to cross the river）.

Rivers also feature prominently in accounts of Paradise，in Hebrew，Christian，and Islamic traditions.Early Christians adopted the Hebrew Bible and with it the story of Genesis，in which a single unnamed river is described as flowing out of Eden to water the garden，from where it emerges to feed four rivers.

These rivers-the Tigris，Euphrates，Gihon，and Pishon-flow to different parts of the world.While the Tigris and Euphrates are known quantities，the Gihon and Pishon were a source of wonderment and confusion for many travellers in ancient and medieval times.The Pishon was long associated with Arabia and later became identified as the Ganges or Indus and，on occasion，the Danube.The source of the Gihon，by contrast，was commonly placed in Ethiopia and hence the river was equated with the Nile.The apparent impossibility of such widely disparate rivers as the Tigris，Euphrates，Ganges，and Nile all having a common source in the Garden of Eden was explained by the suggestion that these rivers flowed underground on leaving Eden initially，resurfacing at great distance from Paradise and from each other.166.thM-acep notfu trhy eb foooukr， rCivherros noifc uPamr，aSdcirsiep，tour rPaae raaudtiosruist，apteu bcloinsshteitd uitnu am

Four rivers are also specified in the Paradise which the Koran says Allah has prepared for faithful Muslims，a place most frequently described as‘gardens under which rivers flow’.Here the devout are sustained by a river of flowing water，and three others comprising milk，wine，and honey.It is frequently thought that the four rivers of Paradise have exerted a great influence on the design of Islamic gardens，often created as earthly representations of Paradise.Many Islamic gardens are laid out in four sections，divided by channels of water fed from a pool or fountain at the garden's centre，but this four-part design with flowing water playing a defining role actually predates Islam.Hence，it is probably not the layout that reflects a specifically Muslim view of Paradise so much as the description of Paradise that reflects a pre-existing expression of garden form.

Rivers are an important feature in some of the earliest Sanskrit texts from India.One of the most prominent rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda，the first of four books that form the basis for the Hindu religion，is the Sarasvati，a river that is also personified as the goddess Saravati.As a river，the Sarasvati is described as large and fast-flowing in the Rig Veda，but later Hindu texts，including the Mahabharata，depict it as having been reduced to a series of saline lakes.Contemporary interest in the Sarasvati River has led several scholars to equate the mythical river with a number of ancient，dry river channels discovered with the aid of satellite imagery in India's Thar Desert in recent years.

Flood legends

Stories of a great flood crop up with uncanny frequency in the

mythology of innumerable cultures，both ancient and modern.

The deluge described in the Biblical book of Genesis is well known to many people in the Judaeo-Christian world and has numerous similarities with the flood described in the earlier Babylonian account of the Epic of Gilgamesh and similar stories from Sumeria and Assyria，also in Mesopotamia.The flood is explained as God's way of cleansing the Earth of wayward humanity，although one man and his family manage to escape in a boat，or ark，with representatives of the planet's wildlife population to keep them company.In all of the stories，the ark ends up on a mountain top and birds are sent forth to see whether the floodwaters have receded.The great flood has considerable symbolic significance，involving an obvious cleansing element as well as being a vehicle for rebirth，marking a clear break between the antediluvial and postdiluvial worlds.The event is effectively repeated at the personal level in various ceremonies of purification by water，including the Christian sacrament of baptism，in which the initiate is cleansed of the old ways in the waters of a river（or font）and is reborn in Christ.The ceremony mimics the baptism of Jesus in the River Jordan.

A similar flood-induced divide between a previous world and a new cosmological order appears in the written testimonies of several Maya groups from Central America.In a number of versions，the deluge occurs after a celestial caiman has been decapitated，interpreted as a flood caused by torrential rain.In some accounts，humanity continues thanks to a few survivors，but many other Mesoamerican flood myths，particularly those recorded by the Aztec peoples，tell of no flood survivors so that creation had to start again from the beginning.

A creation myth from Norse mythology tells how the world emerged at the meeting place of fire and ice，a great void into which eleven rivers flowed.An evil frost giant named Ymir sprang from this place and gave birth to the first man and woman from under his left armpit.Eventually，Ymir was killed by gods who created the world out of his body.His skull became the sky；his spilled blood became the Norse flood that drowned all of the frost giants with the exception of one man and his wife，who escaped in a vessel made of a hollowed tree trunk.

Floods also feature in myths and stories told by numerous Aboriginal groups in Australia，their prominence explicable at least in part by the often dramatic nature of flooding in desert landscapes.One story told by the Wiranggu of South Australia tells of a rain-maker named Djunban who was not fully concentrating on his rain-making ceremony one day and brought unusually heavy rain as a result.Djunban tried to warn his people，but a great flood came and washed them away with all their possessions，forming a hill of silt.This is the origin of gold and bones found in the hill.

The possibility that floods described in myths from all over the world are based on real events has on occasion engendered great debates.Deconstruction of the Biblical flood story，for example，played a central role in the rise of scientific geology in the 19th century.The British geologist Charles Lyell，in his influential book The Principles of Geology（published in three volumes，1830-3），dismissed the prevailing belief in Noah's flood due to a lack of evidence in the geological record.Lyell's book was one of the key works in a struggle between science and faith as the predominant basis for explaining the origins of the world around us.It led to a widespread understanding that our planet is very much older than creationists believed.

Sacred rivers

Many belief systems have invested elements of the natural world with sacred characteristics，and specific rivers feature prominently among them.Rivers were sacred to the Celts of northwestern Europe，for instance，and many were personified as goddesses.Some of the river names used today in this part of the world can be traced back to the Celtic deities who lived near them or died in them.In Ireland，the Rivers Boyne and Shannon derive their names from goddesses who drowned in them after seeking wisdom from a magical well.

The importance of the Nile to the ancient Egyptians was reflected in a number of major and minor gods being associated with the river.Hapi was the god who personified the river's annual flood，the inundation of tears shed each year by the goddess Isis，in sorrow for her murdered husband.Hapi，the Nile deity responsible for collecting these tears，lived in a cataract near today's Aswan，surrounded by crocodiles and goddesses，some of whom were frogs，others women with frogs'heads.Each year，at the start of the flood，Egyptians carried out mass animal sacrifices to Hapi.

In numerous cases，the sanctity of a river is linked to a creation myth that arises from water's position as a primordial element.The River Birem in Ghana，for example，is considered to be the spiritual force and fountainhead of the Akyem kingdom because legend has it that the people of Akyem emerged from the depths of the river.Indeed，rivers，streams，and other water bodies all across Africa are frequently regarded as the habitat of deities and ancestors and hence treated with considerable reverence.The most prominent of the river divinities in Yoruba cosmology，for instance，is Yemoja，ruler of the Ogun River in Nigeria.Yemoja is the mother of all fish and the giver of children，and is customarily brought offerings of yams and chickens by women who want to start a family.In many parts of southern Africa，spirits who dwell in certain river pools are responsible for the creation of traditional healers（see below）.

Many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia also traditionally enjoy close links to nature，in which rivers and other elements of the landscape are central to their animistic spiritual belief systems.Rivers，springs，lakes，and mountains are understood to have spirit-guardians whose presence must be regularly acknowledged and honoured via a community's shaman.For example，the Katun River is considered central to the culture of the indigenous Altaians who inhabit the Russian Altai region on the confluence of its borders with Kazakhstan，China，and Mongolia.Altaians consider the Katun to be a living being，and show appropriate respect in several ways.These include not throwing stones into the river，saying special words when crossing it，and not taking water from the Katun at night because this may upset the river's spirit.

A similar attitude toward rivers is found among the Mansi who live in the Tyumen region of northwestern Siberia.Sacred rivers such as the Yalbynya must not be fished，and even rowing a boat is prohibited in some stretches，so the vessel has to be pulled along from the bank.Other reaches come with different embargoes：the extraction of drinking water is forbidden，for example，or felling trees on certain banks.The river mouth is considered to be the most significant part of the Yalbynya，where local people throw money on passing.

In southeastern Europe，the waters of the Danube play an important part in traditional funeral customs practised by Bulgarians and Romanians living along the river's lower reaches.The river has considerable symbolic value for the idea of death as a long journey to the nether world and is incorporated into often elaborate memorial rituals.‘Freeing the water’of the deceased is a rite that provides water to the dead person for use in the afterlife.The ritual，which varies in detail from village to village，usually involves a child bringing river water to certain houses.In the Bulgarian village of Leskovec，the child is a girl who then returns to the Danube with several women where they lay down a tablecloth on the riverbank and set out a meal consisting of boiled wheat and wine.The women light a candle and hang gifts for the child on a forked stick taken from an apple tree.The girl puts her right foot in the river and asks three times for the ceremony to be witnessed，at which point a hollowed pumpkin containing a candle，some wheat，and a piece of bread is launched from the riverbank.When the pumpkin floats away down the Danube，the water will reach the deceased，but should the pumpkin turn over，the deceased will be angry.

Rivers feature among the most important types of sacred place in Hinduism.About 3,000 years ago，rivers were revered by the Aryan people of the Vedic period in the region that is now India，and evidence from archaeological excavations suggests that the Hindu practice of mass bathing in rivers on auspicious occasions dates back to（and derives from）a similar practice in the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley，up to 2,000 years before that.Indeed，the words‘Hindu’and‘India’are derived from the Indus.

Virtually all Indian rivers are revered as deities，but the Indus is commonly referred to as one of the seven holy rivers of India，the others being the Ganges，Yamuna（or Jumna），Sarasvati，Godavari，Narmada，and Kaveri.However，the Indus and the Kaveri are occasionally replaced by the Tapti and the Kistna.The rivers are often thought of as the veins in the earth's body，and many specific places along a river's course are particularly sacred，including the source，mouth，and confluences.The most sacred of all India's holy rivers is the Ganges.

The Ganges

The connections Hindus have with the Ganges provide one of the most striking examples of the sanctity of rivers.Indeed，in India‘Ganga’is both the name of the River Ganges and the personification of the river as a goddess.The holiness of the Ganges is enshrined in numerous Hindu epics and scriptures，including the Ramayana，the Mahabharata，the Vedas，and the Puranas.The story of the river's arrival on Earth from the heavens has it that the feat was achieved by a sage，known as Bhagiratha，who went to the Himalayan mountains and managed to persuade the river to descend.In several versions of the story，it is the god Shiva who controls the flow of the river，and Gangadhara，or‘Bearer of the Ganges’，is one of Shiva's other names.

The water of the Ganges has numerous auspicious properties for Hindus.It acts as a medicine for every ailment，and bathing in it cleanses the devoted from all sin.Crucially，however，when a person's ashes or bones are entrusted to the river，the soul will be released for rebirth.For many Hindus，the holy city of Varanasi is the preferred place for this final transformation.The west bank of the Ganges at Varanasi is divided into many sections of river frontage each consisting of a series of long steps down to the water，the‘ghats’where people come to bathe，wash their clothes，and cremate the dead.About 80 corpses a day are burned at the two main ghats in Varanasi，most of these brought to the river from outside the city.The ashes of many more people are brought for final immersion in the Ganges.Some corpses that are not cremated，such as those who had smallpox in the past or who died of cholera，are simply weighted down and submerged in the holy waters.Among the most important ghats that specialize in cremation is Manikarnika，which contains the well dug at the beginning of time by Vishnu，one of the most significant Hindu deities who is sometimes depicted as a man-fish.This is the place where all creation，or the cosmos，will bum at the end of time.

Another of the Ganges'most sacred places occurs at its confluence with the Yamuna River，a pilgrimage site popularly known as Prayag，near today's city of Allahabad.This is one of four sites of the mass Hindu pilgrimage Kumbh Mela.According to legend，this is also the place where the mythical Saraswati River joins the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers，thus lending the confluence an additional level of sanctity.The full Kumbh Mela，in which many millions of devotees bathe in the Ganges to purify their sins，takes place every 12 years.The event in 2001 was thought to have been attended by some 60 million people，making it the world's largest gathering in recorded history.

Sacred river creatures

Given the reverence with which numerous rivers are viewed by peoples all over the world，it should come as no surprise to learn that some of the creatures found in rivers have also been the objects of respect and veneration.Certain types of fish found in the Nile were surrounded by mythology and superstition in ancient Egypt，where some species were sacred in particular settlements but not in others.The mormyrus，recognizable by its lengthy down-turned snout，was revered in the city of Oxyrhynchus，where it was never eaten，and considerable numbers of mormyrus have been found mummified in tombs in the Oxyrhynchus area.The Greek historian Plutarch tells how the fish sparked a violent confrontation between the inhabitants of Oxyrhynchus and the nearby city of Cynopolis after the people of Cynopolis，where the dog was held sacred，were one day seen eating mormyrus.The citizens of Oxyrhynchus rounded up all the dogs they could find and ate them in retaliation.

River dolphins have been venerated in several parts of the world.The South Asian river dolphin of the sacred Ganges was given religious significance with its mention in the Rig Veda and became one of the first protected species in history.It was accorded a special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka，one of India's most famous rulers，in the 3rd century BC.In South-East Asia，both the Khmer and Lao people regard the Irrawaddy dolphin as a sacred animal，and they are rarely hunted.Likewise，in South American Indian folklore，the Amazon river dolphin is considered sacred，leading to the belief that hunting and killing them will bring bad luck.The Yangtze river dolphin was revered as the goddess of the Yangtze in China until it was declared extinct in 2007.

Various species of salmon have been honoured in myths and rituals in several societies thanks to their value as an important seasonal food source and their ability to survive in both the salty ocean and freshwater rivers.The Atlantic salmon occupied a special place in Celtic mythology.It was said to be as old as time and to know all things，both in the past and in the future.The Salmon of Wisdom，from Irish legend，features in an important episode in the early life of Fionn mac Cumhaill（anglicized to Finn McCool），a legendary hunter-warrior.Fionn was studying under a poet who had sought the fish for seven years.When the poet finally caught the fish，he asked Fionn to cook it for him，but Fionn burned his thumb on the fish and instinctively put it in his mouth to suck the burn，hence receiving all the knowledge in the world.

During the Middle Ages in Britain，salmon were known as the all-knowing water creatures in Arthurian legends.Gwrhyr，one of King Arthur's finest men and an expert linguist，talked to a series of wise animals in his search for a master huntsman.Each animal was wiser than the previous one，and the oldest and wisest of them all was the salmon of Llyn Llyw，a mythological pool on the River Severn.The magic salmon was said to have gained the power of wisdom by consuming hazelnuts that had dropped into its pool.According to this tradition，the number of spots on a salmon's back is supposed to represent the number of nuts consumed.

Salmon has long been a principal source of food for indigenous groups in northern latitudes，such as on the Pacific coast of North America before the arrival of European colonists.As such a mainstay of the diet，the fish became a focus for numerous rituals，taboos，and mythological stories.Catching the salmon as they ran up the rivers in enormous numbers to spawn was a time of great abundance，often marking a stark contrast to the times when only dried meat and fish were eaten，so the start of the season was a time for reverence and celebration.In the early decades of the 20th century，anthropologists working in the region recorded details of the‘first salmon ceremony’held among many Native American groups，to mark the initial salmon run of the season，before the practice ceased.

Among the Tsimshian communities along the Skeena River in today's Canadian province of British Columbia，any fisherman landing the first salmon was obliged to call four shamans who arrived to take charge.The fish was placed on a mat made of cedar bark and carried to the chief's house in a procession led by one of the shaman-who had put on the fisherman's clothing-holding a rattle in his right hand and an eagle's tail in the left.At the house，in the presence of senior members of the community，the shamans would march around the salmon four times before the man wearing the fisherman's clothes called for the fish's head to be severed，followed by its tail，and the removal of its stomach.The ceremony，marked by the chanting of honorary names，was conducted with a mussel-shell knife.It was thought that using a stone or metal knife would cause a thunderstorm.

Similar first salmon ceremonies were conducted up and down the Pacific seaboard with only minor differences.Some involved speeches and feasting，others ceremonial dances.All stressed respect for the salmon in the hope that it would come in great numbers.Salmon was eaten fresh during the fishing season and dried or smoked for the winter food supply.Many groups in North America，Siberia，and northeastern China also used salmon skin to make their clothing.

River spirits

The association between rivers and various mythical creatures is common to numerous cultures all over the world.In Germanic and Nordic folklore，such water sprites are known as‘nixie’（singular nix）and usually have evil intentions.They frequently entice their human victims to join them，luring them into the water，from which there is no escape.The nix may take different forms，either male or female.One of the best known from Germany was Lorelei，a beautiful nymph who sat on a rock in the Rhine which now bears her name，and lured fishermen into danger with the sound of her voice or by combing her hair.Scandinavian nixie were more likely to be male，drawing their female victims into a river or lake with enchanting songs played on the violin.Pregnant women and unbaptized children were especially vulnerable.

Another form of river spirit in Scandinavian folklore is the bäckahästen，or‘brook horse’，a majestic white beast that would commonly appear on river banks，especially during foggy weather，presenting a tempting ride for a weary traveller.Anyone who climbed onto its back would be unable to dismount，enabling the horse to jump into the river and drown its rider.The kelpie of Scottish folklore is a direct parallel of the bäckahästen.Its most common guise was that of a fine-looking tame horse，but the kelpie could also appear as a hairy man with a terrible vice-like grip.He would hide on the river bank until an unfortunate traveller was passing and then leap out to crush the life from him.

A spirit associated with rivers all over Japan is the kappa，a mischievous creature often described as something between a child and a monkey.One of the kappa's favourite tricks is also to lure people，horses，or cattle into a river to drown.There are numerous regional variations to the kappa and its behaviour，but one of its most common traits is an affinity for cucumbers（frequently thought of as a symbol of fertility）.In some parts of Japan，it is believed that anyone eating a cucumber before swimming will certainly be attacked by a kappa，although in other areas it is a way to ensure protection against kappa attack Either way，many festivals associated with kappa include offerings of cucumbers，and the link between the kappa and the cucumber continues in modern Japan through the name of a type of sushi made with cucumbers：kappa maki.Interestingly，the character of the centuries-old kappa has been subject to a make-over in the last hundred years or so，and has been transformed from a malicious and unpleasant water deity into a harmless and endearing mascot.As a nationally recognized symbol，the kappa has been used for various campaigns that draw on a nostalgia for Japan's rural past.It is ironic to note that one of these was a clean water campaign aiming to regenerate the environment around urban rivers，calling for rivers to be cleaned up so that kappa will come back.

Traditionally，the kappa，like the nix，bäckahästen，and kelpie，are malevolent river spirits，luring the unwary to a watery death.In southern Africa，by contrast，the spirits associated with river systems and other water bodies in the traditional cosmologies of Khoisan-and Bantu-speaking indigenous peoples behave rather differently.To many of these groups，water spirits are regarded as ancestors and they prefer to live in certain spots.In rivers，these are deep pools，frequently below waterfalls where the water is fastmoving and‘living’，often generating lots of foam.These spirits take on various zoomorphic manifestations，primarily the snake and the mermaid.They interact with humans in a variety of ways，and one of the most important of these is their fundamental importance to traditional healing and its practitioners.

Water spirits traditionally call certain chosen individuals to become diviners or healers，which usually involves the physical submersion of the candidate under the water of a certain river pool for a few hours，days，or even years.When the man or woman emerges from the depths，he or she is wearing a snake and has acquired psychic abilities and healing skills，including knowledge of medicinal plants.This experience of being taken under the water can occur in a dream，but this is simply notification that the ancestors are calling the individual to become a healer.The calling frequently comes after a period of illness，although when children are called，they often just happen to be playing near the river at the time.Resistance to this calling is not advised and usually leads to misfortune.Relatives are not allowed to display any grief at the disappearance of one who has gone under the water or the individual may never be returned.

Given the importance of the water spirits，many rivers，pools，and water sources are.viewed with a mixture of awe，fear，and respect by indigenous communities in southern Africa.Their sanctity has generated numerous taboos surrounding access and use.Frequently，only healers，kings，and chiefs are allowed to approach such areas.The general populace is forbidden to go near sacred pools for fear of being taken under the water，never to return.Such taboos represent just one small fragment of the great web of influence rivers exert on humankind，a power that can be traced back to the beginnings of humanity.The ways in which the flow of rivers has helped to shape history is investigated in more detail in the following chapter.