多句结构2——复合句
当用一个句子来充当另一句子的某一成分时，前者为从句，后者为主句，从句和主句构成了复合句
当用一个句子来作另一个句子的主语时，前者被称为主语从句，后者被称为主句。同样的道理，当用一个句子来作另一个句子的宾语、表语、同位语、定语或状语时，前者被称为宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句、定语从句或状语从句，后者为主语。从句和主句合在一起构成了复合句，当然一个句子可以包含多个从句，从句中也可以再包含自己的从句，当从句过多时就需要理清它们之间的关系。
常见的从句有六种：其中主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句这四种从句具有名词属性，因此被称为名词性从句；定语从句具有形容词属性，因此被称为形容词性从句；状语从句具有副词性属性，因此被称为副词性从句。
从句需要使用连接词才能和主句相连，有几个从句就需要有几个连接词。根据连接词在从句中所作的成分，要选择连接代词what，that，which，who等连接从句中的主语、宾语或表语，选择连接副词where，when，how，why等连接状语。连词that较为特殊，在名词性从句（即主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句）中只起到从属连接作用，不在从句中作任何成分。
•名词性从句：主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句
♦引导名词性从句的连词
1）主从连词（不在从句中作任何成分）：that，whether，if
2）连接代词（在从句中作主语、宾语、表语）：what，which，who，whom，whose，whatever，whoever…
3）连接副词（在从句中作状语）：when，where，why，how
（1）引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。
That she was chosen made us very happy.
We heard the news that our team had won.
（2）大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末，而用it充当形式主语。
It is not important who will go.
It is still unknown which team will win the match.
（3）由从属连词that引导的从句时只起连接主句和从句的作用，在从句中不担任任何成分，本身也没有词义。
•主语从句
1）一个句子作主语就是主语从句，连接主语从句的有从属连词that，whether，疑问代词who，which，what，whose，whom和疑问副词when，where，how，why。
2）主语从句重点是要区别that和what：that只起连接作用，无实义；而what在从句中作主语或宾语。即，通过判断所留空的成分能确定用that还是what。
3）一个从句作主句的主语时，主句的谓语动词用单数。如：What you like is what I will pick.
4）当表示“是否”概念时，虽然if和whether同义，但只能用whether引导主语从句。
5）通常由that引导的主语从句用it作形式主语放句首，而把从句移至句尾。
•宾语从句
在主句中作宾语的从句叫作宾语从句，分为动词的宾语从句、介词的宾语从句、形容词的宾语从句三类。
1）动词的宾语从句
大多数及物动词都可以带宾语从句。
We all expect that they will win.
He told us that they would help us.
一些“动词＋副词”结构也可以带宾语从句。
I have found out that all the tickets have been sold out.
Can you work out how much we will spend?
动词短语也可以带宾语从句。
Would you please make sure that there are no mistakes?
2）介词的宾语从句
介词宾语从句常用wh-（特殊疑问词）来引导。
We are talking about whether we should adopt the plan.
The new book is about how students can make full use of their time.
except，but，besides三个介词后可见到that引导的宾语从句。
I know nothing about him except that he is a teacher.
3）形容词的宾语从句
后面可跟宾语从句的形容词有：sure，certain，glad，please，happy，sorry，afraid，satisfied，surprised等。
I am sure I will pass the exam.
I am sorry that I have troubled you so long.
He is glad that Li Ming went to see him when he was ill.
4）宾语从句的结构
当陈述句作宾语从句时，结构：主句＋that＋主语＋谓语部分。
当一般疑问句作宾语从句时，结构：主句＋if（whether）＋主语＋谓语部分。
当特殊疑问句作宾语从句时，结构：主句＋wh-特殊疑问词＋主语＋谓语部分。
5）宾语从句的时态与语序
主句用一般现在时，从句保持不变，可用任意时态。
主句用过去时，从句用过去某个时态。
宾语从句的语序都为陈述句语序。
6）宾语从句的连接词
从属连词：that，if，whether
连接代词：what，which，who，whose，whoever，whosever，whatever，whichever
连接副词：when，where，why，how，whenever，wherever，however
7）it作形式宾语
动词find，feel，consider，make，believe等后面有宾语补足语的时候，则需要用it作形式宾语而将that宾语从句后置。
I think it necessary that we take plenty of hot water every day.
I feel it a pity that I haven't been to the get-together.
We all find it important that we(should)make a quick decision about this mater.
宾语从句是wh-类，则不可用it代替。
We all consider what you said to be unbelievable.
We discovered what we had learned to be valuable.
8）当主语是第一人称，谓语动词是think，believe，imagine，suppose，consider，expect，fancy，guess等时，从句的否定词一般要转移到主句上来，但翻译成汉语时，否定含义要再归于从句。
I don't think he will come.（我认为他不会来。）
I don't believe that he is honest.（我认为他不诚实。）
•同位语从句
常跟在抽象名词后面，如：wish，answer，belief，doubt，evidence，fact，idea，news，order，plan，proof，suggestion等，对该词进行解释。与定语从句不同的地方：一是常用的连接词that不在从句里作任何成分；二是从句是用来解释先行词的，与先行词是同位关系，但是，在翻译同位语从句时基本是按照定语从句的方式来翻译的。
They expressed the wish that she accept the award.
We are glad at the news that he will come.
We are not investigating the question whether he is trustworthy.
Have you any idea what time it starts?
•形容词性从句→定语从句
1）定语从句的构成
先行词＋关系代/副词＋从句，引导定语从句的关联词包括关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that，which，whose，who，whom，as等，如：Those who want to go out follow me.关系副词有when，where，why等，如：This is the room where he used to live.
关系代词在定语从句中充当主语、宾语或表语等句子成分，如：The student who answered the question was John.关系副词在定语从句中一般充当状语，如：I still remember the day when I left my country.关系代词在从句中不作主语时一般可以省略，如：The boy（whom）you are talking to is my brother.此外，现在的很多报刊文章中和英语二的考试文章中，关系副词在定语从句也可以省略，如：I still remember the day（when）I left my country.
2）关系代词的选用
①要看先行词是指人还是指物。如：People who take physical exercise live longer.
②要看关系代词在从句中的语法功能。如：I still remember the day when/on which my brother joined the army.（作状语）I still remember the days which/that we spent together.（作宾语）I'd like a room whose window looks out over the sea.（作定语）
③非限定性定语从句（主从句用逗号隔开）用which来引导，如：He changed his mind，which made me very angry.他改变了主意，这使我很生气。（which指整个主句）
对关系代词与关系副词的具体分析可见下表。
3）定语从句和同位语从句的区别
定语从句对名词进行修饰限制，而同位语从句阐述的是名词的具体内容。从语法上看，that，which在定语从句中作主语或宾语，而同位语的引导词that不在从句中担任任何成分。
The story（that）he told me may not be true.（定语从句）
The story that he has made a fortune may not be true.（同位语从句）
4）限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句的区别见下表
•副词性从句→状语从句
1）状语从句的种类和常用连接词
2）as，though引导的倒装句
Child as/though he was，he knew what was the right thing to do.
＝Though he was a small child，he knew what was the right thing to do.
Try hard as he will，he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
＝Though he tries hard，he never seems…
•强调句
强调句是人们为了突出某一信息尤其重要而使用的一种句式，通过对句子中的某个部分进行强调，从而起到修辞的作用。常用的强调结构是“It is（was）＋被强调部分（主语、宾语或状语）＋who（that）”。一般来说，被强调部分指人时用who，指事物时用that，但that也可以指人。
强调间接宾语It was him that I gave the pen to.
强调介词宾语It is this room that I am living in.
强调时间状语It was last year that Tom graduated from high school.
强调地点状语It was under the bridge that we found him.
强调原因状语It was for his arrogance that I dislike him.
强调目的状语It was for pleasure that I read it.
强调一个从句I was told that it was because he hadn't received the invitation that he didn't come.
•倒装句
1）全部倒装句型的主语必须是名词，若是人称代词则不能倒装。Here he comes.Away they went.
2）谓语动词是be的时候，不能倒装。Here it is.Here you are.
•省略句
1）省略主语
(I)Beg your pardon.
(It)Sounds like a good idea.
2）省略谓语或谓语的一部分
(Is there)Anything I can do for you?
(Is)Anybody here?
3）并列句中的省略
Tom picked up a book on the floor and(Tom)handed it to his teacher.
His advice made me happy，but(his advice made)Jim angry.
I was born in winter in 1998 and Bob(was born in winter)in 1989.
4）状语从句中的省略
While(I am)faced with the problem，I never gave up.
The problems are solved，where(they're)present.
It is much colder today than(it was)yesterday.
Though(they were)tired，they went on working.
•虚拟语气精点
（续）
虚拟条件句常省略if，并将were，had，should提前构成部分倒装。
Should there be a flood(＝if there should be a flood)，what should we do?
Had he taken my advice(＝if he had taken my advice)，he would be a college student now.
Were she my daughter(＝if she were my daughter)，I wouldn't allow her to study abroad.
句中的虚拟语气
1.If it hadn't been for your help，we would have been in real trouble.
2.He would have given you more help，if he had not been so busy.
3.It is high time that we took firm measures to protect our environment.
4.It was imperative that students finish their papers before July 1st.
5.They demanded that the right to vote(should)be given to every adult person.
6.There was a mistake on my paycheck.I should have received＄10 more.
7.I would rather he bought the house next year.
8.The manager told us to be friendly to the visitors as if we had met them before.
技巧训练：划分下列句子的主要语法关系，并尝试翻译各句。
练习1
Although it isn't possible or necessary for a president or prime minister to listen in on every intelligence analysis meeting，it's possible to organize the experts'information to give the decision maker much greater insight as to its meaning.
参考答案
尽管总统或者首相不可能，也没必要参加每次情报分析会议，但却可以将专家的信息有序地组织起来，以便给决策者们提供关于这些信息的更深刻的见解。
练习2
Critics make three main arguments against gene patents:a gene is a product of nature，so it may not be patented；gene patents suppress innovation rather than reward it；and patents'monopolies restrict access to genetic tests such as Myriad's.
参考答案
批评人士有三个反对基因专利的理由：基因是自然的产物，所以不可以给予专利；基因专利不仅不会鼓励创新反而会打压创新；基因垄断会限制人们接触诸如Myriad公司等所做的基因测试。
练习3
But the researchers believe that outside directors have an easier time of avoiding a blow to their reputations if they leave a firm before bad news breaks，even if a review of history shows they were on the board at the time any wrongdoing occurred.
参考答案
但是研究人员们认为，即便后期历史审查显示独立董事在管理不当发生时仍在董事会任职，如果他们能在坏消息披露之前离开公司，他们还是会较为容易地避免名誉受到打击。
练习4
The data indicates that computer ownership and online access are growing more rapidly among the most prosperous and well educated:essentially，wealthy white people with high school and college diplomas and who are part of stable，two-parent households.
参考答案
数据表明，拥有电脑和连线上网在那些事业最成功和拥有良好教育的人群中正以更快的速度增长：从本质上讲，就是那些拥有高等教育文凭的富有白人，同时他们拥有稳定的双亲家庭。
练习4
Germany insists that economic co-ordination should involve all 27 members of the EU club，among whom there is a small majority for free-market liberalism and economic rigour；in the inner core alone，Germany fears，a small majority favour French interference.
参考答案
德国主张经济合作应该包括所有27个欧盟成员国，这些国家中支持自由市场主义和严格的经济政策占微弱多数；德国担心在欧盟核心成员国中支持法国的干预会占微弱多数。
练习5
When he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market，he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter，still fresh and hard in neat，one-pound bricks.
参考答案
当他使用一个他自己发明的冰箱将黄油运输到市场上时，他发现顾客们拒绝购买其他卖家们桶里迅速融化的黄油，而是出每块一磅的高价购买他的依然新鲜干硬的黄油。
练习6
The aircraft took off smoothly enough，but any feelings that I and the young scientists had that we were on anything like a scheduled passenger service were quickly dismissed when the pilot put the plane into a 45 degree climb which lasted around 20 seconds.
参考答案
飞机很平稳地起飞，我和小科学家们感觉我们就像客运飞行一样，但当飞行员按45度角向上爬行大约20秒钟后，这种感觉很快就消失了。
练习7
And yet by devising a consistent strategy that mixes and blends pragmatism with ambition，the US can，without major damage to the economy，help halt the worst effects of climate change and ensure the survival of its way of life for future generations.
参考答案
但是在构思出一个融合了实用主义与胆识的总体策略的条件下，同时在不严重损害经济发展的前提下，美国是能够阻止气候变化所带来的最严重后果，从而能确保子孙后代也能过上平稳安宁的生活。
练习8
Their thesis—that a relatively modest intervention could have a big impact—was based on the view that first-generation students may be most lacking not in potential but in practical knowledge about how to deal with the issues that face most college students.
参考答案
他们这篇论文——《比较适度的干预会产生很大影响》——是依据这样的观点：一代大学生们可能非常缺乏的不是潜质而是实用的知识，这些知识可用于解决摆在大部分大学生面前的问题。
练习9
In addition，the practice of tip pooling，which is the norm in fine-dining restaurants and is becoming more common in every kind of restaurant above the level of a greasy spoon，has ruined whatever effect voting with your tip might have had on an individual waiter.
参考答案
此外，集中付小费的做法在高档餐馆成为例行，并且在各类中档餐厅中也越来越普遍，这破坏了通过付小费对个人侍者产生的任何效果。
练习10
Looking beyond the culture war logic of right or wrong means opening up the middle ground and understanding that managing immigration today requires multiple paths and multiple outcomes，including some that are not easy to accomplish legally in the existing system.
参考答案
着眼要跨过文化战争的逻辑以及意识正确与否，就意味着要开辟中间地带，并认识到处理当下的移民事务需要采用多条途径，获得多种成果，而其中的一些成果是现存体制难以合法实现的。