Chapter 2 A Brief H istory of China中国历史简介
China is a country with a long and rich history and ancient civilization．The History of China can date back to as early as 4000 B．C．Chinese civilization began with the legendary sage-emperors Huang Di and Yan Di in the area of the Yellow River Basin．After centuries，the two tribes gradually merged into one by the time of the Xia Dynasty．Chinese people，therefore，usually regard themselves as“the descendants of Yan and Huang”，or call themselves“Hua Xia People”or“Hua People”．It was these people who established a state in the region of the Yellow River Basin，which was believed to be the center of the world，so the state was named the“Middle Kingdom”．
Chinese generally tell the history from the Xia Dynasty，which began in the 21st century B．C．and was followed by various dynasties until 1912 when Dr．Sun Yat-sen was proclaimed the provisional president of the Republic of China．
1.The Xia Dynasty(2070 B.C.-1600 B.C.)
Xia is the first prehistoric dynasty in Chinese history．It is said that when the legendary ruler Yu died，his son was chosen to be the leader，thus created the Xia Dynasty and established the system of hereditary dynastic rule．There were 14 generations with 17 rulers in Xia Dynasty before it was taken place of by the Shang Dynasty．Scientific excavations by archaeologists uncovered urban sites，bronze implements，and tombs that provided the evidence of the existence of Xia civilization．
The Xia were agrarian people，and by the time of Yao，Shun and Yu，farming and stockbreeding were considerably developed．People were familiar with the phenomena of seasonal changes and arranged their farm activities according to the alterations of the seasons．
2.The Shang Dynasty(1600 B.C.-1046 B.C.)
The Shang Dynasty consisted of 17 generations and 31 kings，and it controlled the central part of China，extending over much of modern Henan，Hubei，Shandong，Anhui，Shanxi，and Hebei provinces．Its civilization was based on agriculture，hunting and animal husbandry．The Shang was often at war with neighboring peoples and they had to move their capital for seven times．
The Shang enjoyed the most advanced bronze civilization in the world．The excavated bronze weapons，bronze fittings for chariots and harnesses and ceremonial bronze vessels with inscriptions dating back to the Shang period show the highly skillful technique in bronze making．
The development of a writing system can be witnessed on the oracles like tortoise shells or animal bones，and these writings were the beginning of the written Chinese language．(see picture 2-1)
The Shang king's rule was based on both religious and military power．The king made animal sacrifices and communicated with his ancestors by interpreting the cracks on heated cattle bones or tortoise shells that had been prepared by professional diviners．Kings were buried with ritual vessels，weapons，jades，and human sacrifice．Sometimes，when a ruler died，more than one hundred slaves were forced to join him in the grave．Some of them would be decapitated first，and some of them were just cruelly thrown into the tomb alive．
3.The Zhou Dynasty(1046 B.C.-256 B.C.)
The Zhou Dynasty reigned for more than 800 years with 37 kings，the longest period of all Chinese dynasties．The Zhou Dynasty falls into several sub-periods:the Western Zhou，the Eastern Zhou which is further divided into the Spring and Autumn Period(770 B．C．-476 B．C)and the Warring States Period(475 B．C．-256 B．C．)
The Kings Wen and Wu，the founders of the Zhou Dynasty，were regarded as the ideal monarchs by the Confucians for they reined with morality，humanity and righteousness．The Zhou Dynasty was a turning point in Chinese history for it evolved into the feudal system，and witnessed the territorial expansion，economic prosperity and cultural flourishing．
The Zhou Dynasty was characterized by great intellectual achievements in terms of the rise of Confucianism，Daoism and the development of Chinese philosophy．Confucius，the founder of Confucianism，and Laozi，the founder of Daoism together with other philosophers and theorists such as Mencius，Mozi，Zhuangzi，Han Feizi，Xunzi etc．，made unprecedentedly huge impact on Chinese culture．
The Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods are famous for the cultural prosperity with“Hundred Schools of Thought”．During this era，many poets voiced their opinions of criticism and emotions，many of which were preserved in the Book of Poetry，the first important work of literature in Chinese history．
The concept of the ruler as the“Son of Heaven”originated during the Zhou period and the concept of the“mandate of heaven”gained the popularity．It was believed that the emperor ruled by divine right and his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate，and heaven expresses disapproval of an evil rulers through natural disasters such as earthquakes，floods and plagues and through rebellions．
4.The Qin Dynasty(221 B.C.-206 B.C.)
Qin Shihuang(see picture 2-2)，the first Emperor of China，established the first centralized，unified，multi-ethnic feudal state in Chinese history—the Qin Dynasty after a few hundred years of disunity．Although the rule of the two Qin emperors lasted only about two decades，it marks the beginning of a more than two thousand years long history of a centralized state with an emperor being the head of a state and a comparatively uniformed culture．
Qin Shihuang made many changes and reforms to unify China and help his administrative tasks．He standardized the written script so as to create a consistent way to help people communicate across the country．Weights，measures and currencies were also standardized，and the system of prefectures and counties were solidly established．The sovereigns of the next 2，000 years actually followed the feudal governmental structure established by the Qin．
Qin Shihuang is an epoch-making historic emperor in China's history．He was praised as a unifier and centralizer，but was attacked and criticized as a cruel tyrant．Under his rule，many constructive public projects were undertaken．Roads and irrigation canals were built throughout the country，and in order to fend off barbarian invasion，the fortification walls were built to make a 5，000-kilometer-long great wall．On the other hand，he executed 400 of his opponents and burned the books written before the Qin Dynasty to wipe out ideas which conflicted with the Emperor．The public works and taxes were too great a burden to the population．He forced huge labors to build his tombs，and hundreds upon thousands of the terra cotta armies and horses(see picture 2-3)were found at the burial site，which meant to protect the tomb for the Qin．
5.The Han Dynasty(206 B.C.-220 A.D.)
In 206 B．C．Liu Bang succeeded in founding a new empire，the Han Dynasty，with its capital at Chang'an．The reign of the Han lasted 406 years with 24 generations，and it is regarded as one of the greatest dynasties in Chinese History．The ethnic majority of Chinese still call themselves as the“Han people”．The Han dynasty fell into three periods:Western Han(206 B．C．-8 A．D．)，Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty (822)，and Eastern Han(25-220)．
The new empire basically remained much of the Qin administrative structure but retreated some from centralized rule by establishing vassal principalities in some areas for political purpose．Under the Han Emperors，the empire expanded into southern China，northern Vietnam and parts of Korea，westward as far as the rim of the Tarim Basin，and forged trade route called“the silk road”through Central Asia to Antioch，Baghdad，and Alexandria．
Confucian ideals of government were adopted as the canon of the Han Empire，and Confucian scholars gained conspicuous status as the core of the civil service．An imperial examination system was also initiated to select officials．China's most famous historian Sima Qian was in the Han period，whose Historical Records provides an elaborated chronicle of the politics，economy，culture and history of 3，000 years from the time of the legendary Xia emperor to the Western Han Dynasty．
In the Han dynasty，science and technology made remarkable achievements．Paper，the compass，and the seismograph were invented，and steel was manufactured and advances in medicine，astronomy，and cartography were also noteworthy in history．
6.Three Kingdoms(220-280)，Jin(265-420)，Southern and Northern Dynasty(420-589)
The collapse of the Han dynasty was followed by a long period of disunity and civil war．The first period was the Three Kingdoms:Wei in northern China，Shu to the west，and Wu in the east．Continuous wars among the three states developed various wise political and military thoughts and produced talented persons such as Zhuge Liang，Cao Cao，who demonstrated their special ability not only in military and political affairs but also in literature．
Jin historically fell into two periods:the Western Jin(265-317)with Luoyang as its capital city，and Eastern Jin(317-420)as Jiankang(present Nanjing)as its capital city．Jin Dynasty did not last long with a lot of confrontations and conflicts，and people surrounding the capital suffered due to the fighting and began a migration out from the center of the empire to the more peaceful frontier regions．
After Jin was destroyed，there appeared the Dynasties of the North and South，which lasted 160 years．It was an age of civil war and political disunity．The northern dynasties consisted of the Northern Wei，the Eastern Wei，the Western Wei，the Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou．The southern dynasties consisted of the Song，the Qi，the Liang and the Chen four generations．
The Dynasties of the North and South was an era of the quick and wide spread of Buddhism，the flourishing in poetry，music，calligraphy，painting with the remarkable representatives like the great calligrapher Wang Xizhi and outstanding painter Gu Kaizhi．It also enjoyed the considerable advancements in technology，for example，Zu Chongzhi(429-501)made unique contribution to mathematics，who introduced the approximation 355/113 toπwhich is correct to 7 decimal places．
7.The Sui Dynasty(581-618)
China was reunified by the Sui dynasty founded by emperor Sui Wendi，Yang Jiang，with the capital at Chang'an．The dynasty was short-lived，lasting for 38 years with only three emperors．
However，in this time period，the social economy underwent rapid recovery and development．Governmental power was centralized and the“Three Departments and Six Ministries”system officially instituted．Great efforts were devoted to the improvement of the national defense and the expansion of the Great Wall．The land equalization system was exercised in order to enhance agricultural productivity and reduce the gap between the rich and poor social groups．The Sui dynasty witnessed various reforms and achievements such as the construction of the engineering feats like the Grand Canal(see picture 2-4)from Beijing to Hangzhou and Zhaozhou Bridge．Confucianism began to regain popularity，and Buddhism was further spread and encouraged throughout the empire to reunite the people of different regions．
However，due to the crushing burden of taxes and forced labor imposed on people，the disastrous military warfare against Koguryo，and Yang Di's extravagance and corruption，peasant uprisings broke out and soon swept the whole country，which finally brought about the downfall of the dynasty．
8.The Tang Dynasty(618-907)
The Tang Dynasty was established by Li Yuan in 618 with its capital at Chang'an，lasting 290 years with 21 emperors．The Tang dynasty is considered to be a high point in Chinese civilization in history．The boundaries of China were extended to Siberia in the North，Korea peninsula in the east，Vietnam in the South，and west in Aral Sea in mid-Asia．
The Tang Dynasty witnessed a period of political，economic and cultural boom in China．At that time，China was so powerful and prosperous that it ranked among the most advanced countries in the world．It established friendly ties with Japan and many countries in West Asia，Europe and even Africa，which secured peace and safety on overland trade routes reaching as far as Syria and Rome，with its capital Chang'an as center of economical and cultural exchange between various countries．
During the Tang period，Buddhism flourished and gradually became localized as an important part of Chinese traditional culture．A Buddhist monk called Xuan Zang traveled from Chang'an through Gansu，Xinjiang and central Asia to India for the furtherance of Buddhist classics．The imperial examination system was perfected under Tang rule to discover and attract the best talents without social connections to serve as government officials．
The Tang period was also the golden age of literature and art，which produced the most brilliant poetry of the country．Among the hundreds of poets of the Tang Dynasty，the best known are Li Bai，Du Fu and Bai Juyi．
In the mid-8th century，the“An Lushan and Shi Siming Rebellion”brought about political disturbance and considerably weakened the power and authority of the court．Misrule，court intrigues，rebellions and peasant uprisings weakened the empire，finally put the ever powerful and mighty Tang Dynasty to an end in 907．The next halfcentury saw the fragmentation of China into five northern dynasties and ten southern kingdoms．
9.The Song Dynasty(960-1279)
The Song period was divided into two phases:Northern Song(960-1127)and Southern Song(1127-1279)．With a thriving economy，radiant education and culture， the Song Dynasty was considered to be another period of prime time in Chinese history after the glorious Tang Dynasty．
The Northern Song was founded in 960 by Zhao Kuangyin in Bianliang(in current Kaifeng of Henan Province)．In 1127，the Northern Song Dynasty was destroyed by the Jin Dynasty．Zhao Gou fled to Nanjing Yingtianfu(in current Shangqiu of Henan Province)and established the Southern Song Dynasty there．Later，the capital city was moved to Lin'an(in current Hangzhou)．The Song Dynasty lasted 320 years with 18 emperors altogether．
The Song Dynasty had dramatic increase of population，which in some degree fomented and fueled an economic revolution in China．During this period，agriculture，handicraft industry，shipbuilding industry and commerce flourished，and science and technology made impressive advancements．The Song dynasty was notable for the development of cities for administrative purposes and for the development of trade，industry，and maritime commerce as well．There was a thrivingness in calligraphy，painting，sculpture and weaving art．Achievements in porcelain manufacture surpassed all previous dynasties，and the Song porcelain was transported through sea route to overseas countries．Gunpowder widely used for military purposes，the compass employed for navigation，and the movable type printing by Bi Sheng are huge contributions to the world civilization．
Song poetry was a newly emergent literary form extremely popular at that time with famous poets such as Liu Yong，Su Shi，Xin Qiji，Li Qingzhao．Shen Kuo，who excelled in many fields of study and statecraft，wrote Dream Pool Essays which covers different fields like astronomy，physics，chemistry，geology，meteorology，medical and so on，astounding the people of the world．
10.The Yuan Dynasty(1271-1368)
The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan，the grandson of Genghis Khan－the Mongols leader，lasting 163 years with 11 emperors．The Yuan Dynasty gradually adopted Chinese political and cultural models．However，during the 1340s and 1350s，internal political cohesion disintegrated as growing factionalism at court，rampant corruption，and a succession of natural calamities led to rebellion and，finally，the dynasty collapsed．
Due to the renewed national unification，the economy was boosted which promoted science and culture，improved the ties between various nationalities and increased contacts and communications with foreign nations．The first records of travel by the Venetian Marco Polo accounted his trip to China，which aroused both great interest and awe of the world．
The religious culture of the Yuan Dynasty received an all-round development．The Mongolians'own religion，Buddhism as well as the traditional Chinese religion of Daoism simultaneously acquired their positions in the Yuan society．There was a remarkable cultural flowering;especially a new kind of literature form Yuan Drama was prosperous during that period．The Yuan drama was one of the outstanding Chinese literary heritages．The most influential works are Wang Shifu's Romance of the Western Chamber，Guan Hanqing's Dou E Yuan．
11.The Ming Dynasty(1368-1644)
The Ming Dynasty was founded by a peasant uprising leader Zhu Yuanzhang at 1368．He drove the Mongol emperor away from the capital(now Beijing)，and restored Han nationality rule in China．The Ming Dynasty lasted 277 years with 16 emperors with its capital first at Nanjing and later from 1421 year at Beijing．In 1644 the Ming Dynasty was overthrown by the peasant armies under Li Zicheng．
During the Ming Dynasty，the development of agriculture and handicraft production brought an expansion to the commodity economy．From the middle of Ming times onward，capitalism began to burgeon in some handicraft industries along the coastal regions．There were enormous projects of construction including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing．Overseas contacts also greatly increased with the growth of ship building industry and navigation technology．Zheng He，a famous navigator，traveled to the West in seven epic voyages from 1405 to 1433，visiting over 30 countries throughout South Pacific，Indian Ocean，Persian Gulf and distant Africa．
There was a great amount of literary achievements in the Ming Dynasty．The travel literature author Xu Xiake's Travel Diaries is of high scientific and literary value．The classic fictional novel The Romance of the Three Kingdoms，Water Margin，Pilgrimage to the West，and The Golden Lotus(Jin Ping Mei)were very well received and noticed．One of the most famous plays in Chinese history，the Peony Pavilion，written by the Ming playwright Tang Xianzu is still on show．
12.The Qing Dynasty(1636-1911)
In 1616，after reunifying all the Nuzhen tribes，Nurhachu set up“Latter Jin”and proclaimed himself emperor．In 1636，Huang Taiji，son of Nurhachu changed the regime title into“Qing”，thus established the Qing Dynasty．In 1644，the Manchus seized the control of Beijing，and in October of the same year，the capital was moved to Beijing．The Qing Dynasty lasted 276 years with 11 emperors．
The Qing Dynasty reached its peak during the reigns of emperors Kang Xi，Yong Zheng and Qian Long，which is known as the Kang Qian Sheng Shi．Its territory was extensive;economy and commerce developed;literature and arts flowered and culture of various forms thrived．However，due to the isolation policy and corruption，the late years of the Qing Dynasty began to decline with intensified social conflicts and continuous uprisings．In 1840，when the Opium War broke out，the Qing court was confronted with crisis at home and abroad．In the end，the revolution of 1911 led by Sun Yat-sen broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty．
Before Daoguang age，the Qing enjoyed great culture achievements with the eminent theoreticians and thinkers like Wang Fuzhi，Gu Yanwu，and the important history critics Huang Zongxi etc．The Qing promoted the collection of knowledge and writing of China，and the most famous collection that tried to summarize all existent writings that had ever been published was The Imperial Collection of Four，the largest collection of books in Chinese history and also probably the most ambitious editorial enterprise in the history of the world．The most conspicuous accomplishments in the Qing were the creations of novels like Cao Xueqin's A Dream of Red Mansions，Wu Jingzi's The Scholars．Other literary forms were also very well received，such as the short story collection Strange Tales of the Make-Do studio by Pu Songling，the theatre plays The Hall of Everlasting Life by Hong Sheng and The Peach Blossom Fan by Kong Shangren．
13.The Opium Wars(1840-1842，1856-1860)
The Opium Wars or Sino-British Opium War，lasting from 1840 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 respectively，was a turning point for China to be reduced into a semi-colonial and semi-feudalist country．
The First Opium War started in 1840 when British smuggled opium from British India into China and the Qing government exerted its efforts to enforce the drug laws．In March 1839，the Emperor appointed Lin Zexu as the governor of Canton with the goal of reducing and eliminating the Opium trade．He enforced the imperial demand that there be a permanent halt to drug shipments into China，and then imposed a trade embargo on the British．He arrested about 1，700 opium dealers，and destroyed about 2．6 million pounds of opium by dissolving it with water，salt and lime and dumping it into the ocean，burning it in public．British government started war of invasion by first seizing Hong Kong and then sent a large British Indian army to take Canton，occupied Dinghai，Zhenghai，Ningbo and Shanghai，and sailed up the Yangtze River and reached Jiangning(Nanjing)on August 5，1842．The Qing authorities sued for peace， which concluded with the Treaty of Nanjing．In the treaty，China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain，and agreed to open five ports，Guangzhou，Fuzhou，Xiamen，Ningbo and Shanghai，for trade，and ceded Hong Kong to Queen Victoria．
The Second Opium War broke out in 1856 when the Qing court rejected the unreasonable demands from Britain，France，Russia and the USA，who formed an alliance and conspired the invasion．Taking the advantage of Arrow Incident，the British attacked Guangzhou．The alliance cruised north to capture the Taku Forts and soon reached Tianjin．The Qing government succumbed again with humiliating Treaty of Tianjin，which opened more ports to Western trade．In Feburary 1860，a larger Anglo-French force(11，000 British，6，700 French)with 173 ships sailed from Hong Kong，and soon captured the port cities of Yantai and Dalian．After taking Tianjin，the Anglo-French forces entered Beijing on October 13 and began looting and burning the Old Summer Palace(Yuanmingyuan)．On October 24 and 25，the Qing Court surrendered to the alliance，and the Treaty of Tianjin was finally ratified and the Treaty of Peking was signed，bringing the Second Opium War to an end．The Chinese had to pay 8 million taels to Britain and France．Britain acquired Kowloon，and Tianjin was opened as a trade port．The opium trade was legalized and Christians were granted full civil rights．
The Qing Dynasty succumbed to the west invaders in both wars，and humiliatingly signed the unequal treaties，which brought about tragic consequences for the development of China．Many Chinese were infuriated and fought bravely in various forms resulting in the Taiping Uprising(1850-1864)，the Boxer Movement(1899 1901)，and finally the downfall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911．
14.Republic of China(1912-1949)
Guided by the Three Principles of the People，“nationalism，democracy，and people's livelihood”，Dr．Sun Yat-sen(1866-1925)led people to overthrow the Qing Dynasty through the renowned 1911 Revolution and gave birth to the Republic of China，ending the feudal monarchic rule in China which lasted for more than 2，000 years．
In 1919 the May 4th Movement broke out which was an anti-imperialism and feudalism movement．This brought about a drastic change in society that fueled the birth of the Communist Party of China which was founded in 1921．From July 1937 to August 1945 were the periods of Chinese people fighting bravely against the Japanese aggressors．The War of Resistance against Japan was a turning point in modern Chinese history，for it ended the divided situation since the Opium War of 1840 and greatly enhanced the Chinese people's national spirit to get united and protect their state sovereignty．
15.Emergence of New China(1949)
On October 1，1949，the People's Republic of China was officially established with the famous declaration of Chairman Mao Zedong on the Tian'anmen Square“the Chinese people have ever since stood up”．Beijing is the capital of new China and Chinese people entered a new modern age．
Word Bank
bronze implement青铜器
excavations发掘，出土文物
archaeologists考古学家
diviner占卜者，占卦的人
the terra cotta armies and horses兵马俑
the Confucians儒家
dethronement废除
barbarian invasion外夷入侵
Antioch安提阿(古叙利亚首都，现土耳其南部城市)
Alexandria亚历山大城，埃及北部的城市，位于尼罗河三角洲西端的地中海沿岸
seismograph地震仪，测震仪
the vassal principalities诸侯国
calligrapher书法家
Aral Sea咸海，旧译阿拉海
Kublai Khan忽必烈
Genghis Khan成吉思汗
Nurhachu努尔哈赤
the Opium War鸦片战争
Arrow Incident“亚罗号事件”，是英国政府蓄意挑起侵华战争的借口，导致第二次鸦片战争爆发
Taku Forts大沽炮台
Taels银两，过去在中国使用的一种货币单位
Kowloon九龙
the Taiping Uprising太平军起义
the Boxer Movement义和团运动
state sovereignty国家主权
参考译文
中国是个历史悠久的文明古国，其历史可以追溯到公元前4000年。中国文明始于传说中以黄帝和炎帝为首的两个部落，经过几个世纪，到夏朝两个部落逐渐融为一体。因而，中国人往往称自己为“炎黄子孙”，或者“华夏民族”或“华人”。他们在黄河流域定居建国，并认为是在世界中部，故称为“中国”。
中国历史一般从夏朝开始讲述，自公元前21世纪始，历经无数朝代，直到1912年孙中山宣誓就任中华民国临时大总统。
1.夏朝(公元前2070年—公元前1600年)
夏朝是中国历史上第一个王朝。传说大禹死后，其子被推为王，建立了夏朝，开了王位世袭制的先河。夏共历14代17王。考古学家发掘的遗址、青铜器和墓葬为夏朝文明提供了证明。
夏朝的经济活动以农业为主，在尧、舜、禹时代，农业和畜牧业发展很快，人们已掌握季节变化，并且根据四季安排农活。统治者用一些烦琐的礼节来巩固他们的统治地位。
2.商朝(公元前1600年—公元前1046年)
商朝共历17代31王，疆土范围控制在中国中部，包括今天的河南、湖北、山东、安徽、山西、河北等地。商朝文明建立在农业、狩猎和畜牧业之上。商朝战乱不断，都城也多次迁徙。
商朝的青铜器制造业有很大的发展，其青铜器文化誉满天下。出土的商朝青铜兵器、车马器和刻有铭文的礼器充分展现了那一时期精湛的青铜制造技术。
商朝人刻写在龟甲或兽骨上的文字被称为“甲骨文”，中国有文字可考的历史从商朝开始。(见图2-1)
商朝统治者宗教和军事并用。他们常用牲畜祭祀，通过用龟甲、兽骨上的裂纹来占卜吉凶。死后陪葬品有礼器、兵器、玉和活人。有时会有上百名奴隶被迫为死去的统治者陪葬，有的死前被砍头，有的则被残忍地活活扔进坟墓陪葬。
3.周朝(公元前1046年—公元前256年)
周朝是中国历史上最长的朝代，共历时800多年传37王。周朝分为西周和东周，东周又分为春秋和战国两个时期。
周文王和周武王是周朝的奠基人，他们以德、仁、义治理国家，故被儒家尊为理想的统治者。周朝从奴隶制转向封建制，是中国历史的一个转折点。周朝期间，疆土扩大，经济繁荣，文化兴旺。
周朝时期，儒家和道家思想兴起，中国哲学思想得以发展。儒家思想的创始人孔子和道教创始人老子以及其他的哲学家和思想家，如:孟子、墨子、庄子、韩非子、荀子等，对中国文化的影响极其深远。
春秋和战国时代以“诸子百家”的思想文化繁荣而著称。在这一时期，诗人们用诗歌来表达他们的观点和情感，许多诗歌被收存在《诗经》中。《诗经》是中国历史上第一部重要的文学作品。
源于周代的“天子”理念和“天命”思想当时较为普遍。人们认为皇帝的统治权力是神授的，如被废除或推翻是因为统治者有违天命。“上天”通过地震、洪水、瘟疫等自然灾害或者通过被统治者的造反来表达对恶君的不满。
4.秦朝(公元前221年—公元前206年)
秦始皇(见图2-2)建立了中国历史上第一个中央集权和多民族统一的封建王朝，成为统一中国后的第一位皇帝。虽然秦朝历史短暂，但是标志着2 000多年文化相对统一、以皇帝为统治者的中央集权政权历史的开始。
秦始皇推行一系列巩固统一、加强中央集权的政策措施。他统一文字，方便人们沟通。他还统一了度量和货币单位，实施牢固的郡县制。在此后的2 000年里，封建君主们基本按照秦朝时奠定的封建政权结构进行统治。
秦始皇是中国历史上一个划时代的皇帝。他统一中国，建立中央集权，为世人称道。但是，他因苛刑暴政而被唾骂批判。在他统治期间，实施了一系列公共项目，如全国修路、挖渠灌田、修筑万里长城以抵御外夷的入侵。另一方面，他残杀了400个政敌，焚书坑儒;百姓劳役赋税繁重，大量劳力被强征去修建陵墓。在他的陵墓处发现了大量用来陪葬的陶制兵马俑(见图2-3)。
5.汉朝(公元前206年—公元220年)
公元前206年，刘邦灭秦，称帝，国号汉，建都长安。汉代共历24帝406年，是中国历史上强大的封建王朝之一。中国大部分人仍然自称为“汉人”。汉朝可以分为西汉(公元前206年—公元8年)、王莽新政(8年－22年)和东汉(25年－220年)三个时期。
汉朝基本沿用了秦朝大部分的政权管理制度，但是出于政治目的，建立了一些诸侯国。汉朝疆土扩至中国南疆、越南北部和朝鲜半岛部分地区，西至塔里木盆地，并且打通了称为“丝绸之路”的商道。该商道穿越中亚，抵达安提阿(古叙利亚首都，现土耳其南部城市)、巴格达和埃及的亚历山大城。
儒家的治国思想在汉朝占主导地位，儒家学者在朝廷上地位显著，而朝廷官员选拔则通过新建立的考试制度来实行。汉代著名史学家司马迁所著的《史记》详细地记录了从夏朝到西汉这3 000年间的政治、经济、文化和历史变迁。
汉朝科技发展辉煌，发明了纸、指南针和地动仪。冶炼技术得以发展，医学、天文学和绘图在历史上都有重要地位。
6.三国(220年—280年)、晋(265年—420年)、南北朝(420年—589年)
汉朝崩溃后中国出现长时间的分裂和割据纷争。三国形成于公元220年，北魏、西蜀、东吴三足鼎立。不断的战争造就了一批优秀的军事人才和杰出精英，如诸葛亮、曹操等，他们不仅在政治和军事方面展现出过人的才能，而且在文学上也有突出的才华。
晋分为两个时期:西晋(265年—317年)，建都洛阳;东晋(317年—420年)，建都建康(现南京)。晋朝虽然时间不长，但是战争冲突不断，人民饱受战乱之苦，纷纷外迁。
自公元420年东晋灭亡之后，中国历史上形成南北对峙的南北朝时期，历经169年。南北朝时期内战纷乱，政权更迭。北朝历经北魏、东魏、西魏、北齐、北周五个朝代;南朝历经宋、齐、梁、陈四个朝代。
南北朝时期佛教迅速传播发展，诗歌、音乐、书法、绘画繁荣兴旺，杰出代表人物有书法家王羲之、画家顾恺之等。这个时期的科技也大有进步，祖冲之(429年—501年)在数学上成就巨大，他是世界上第一个把圆周率的准确数值算到小数点后7位数字的人。
7.隋朝(581年—618年)
隋文帝杨坚建立隋朝，重新统一全国，建都长安。隋朝持续时间较短，共历3帝38年。
隋朝虽短，但是社会经济恢复和发展迅速。隋朝实行中央集权，建立三省六部制。甲兵强锐，扩建长城，实行均田制来提高农业生产力，缩小贫富差距。隋朝改革发展成就较大，修成京杭大运河(见图2-4)，建造赵州桥。儒家思想重被重用，佛教继续得到传播和鼓励，以此来团结各族人民。
不幸的是，沉重的徭役和兵役、对高句丽发动的灾难性战争、隋炀帝的奢靡腐败等使农民爆发起义，隋政权因此土崩瓦解。
8.唐朝(618年—907年)
公元618年，李渊称帝，国号唐，建都长安，共历21帝290年。唐朝是历史上中国文明最兴盛的时期，疆土北至西伯利亚，东至朝鲜半岛，南至现今的越南，西达中亚咸海。
唐朝时期政治、经济、文化等各方面都繁荣发展，居于当时世界领先地位。唐朝与日本和西亚许多国家以及欧洲甚至非洲国家建立了友好的外交关系，保障了远达叙利亚和罗马的陆上商路安全。首都长安成为世界各国经济文化交流的中心。
唐朝期间，佛教兴旺并且逐渐本土化，成为中国传统文化的一个重要部分。一位名叫玄奘的和尚从长安出发，穿过甘肃、新疆和中亚地区来到印度学习佛教经典。科举考试制度进一步完善，挖掘、吸纳没有社会背景的优秀人才到朝廷做官。
唐朝也是文学艺术发展的黄金时期，诗歌艺术灿烂辉煌，产生了像李白、杜甫、白居易这样的伟大诗人。
公元8世纪中叶的“安史之乱”使唐朝政治混乱，朝廷权力和威信大大削弱。暴政、朝廷阴谋、叛乱和农民起义使唐朝日渐衰弱，最终使强大辉煌的唐朝在公元907年结束了统治。在其后半个世纪里，中国进入“五代十国”时期。
9.宋朝(960年—1279年)
宋朝可分为北宋(960年—1127年)与南宋(1127年—1279年)，合称两宋。宋朝是继唐朝后中国历史上经济与文化教育繁荣的又一黄金时期。
公元960年赵匡胤称帝，国号宋，建都汴梁(今河南开封)，史称北宋。公元1127年金兵攻入开封，北宋亡。赵构逃到南京应天府(现河南商丘)称帝，后迁都至临安(今杭州)，史称南宋。宋朝共历18帝320年。
宋朝时期，中国人口数量急剧增加，一定程度上推动了中国经济的革命性发展。在这一时期，农业、手工业、造船业和商业繁荣，科技有了显著的发展。宋代城市发展令人瞩目，这不仅是为了方便行政管理，而且是为了商业、工业和海上贸易的更好发展。书法、绘画、雕塑和编织在宋代均有繁荣发展。宋瓷成就超越以往，所产瓷器通过海上商贸远销海外各国。火药用于战争、指南针用于航海、毕昇发明活字印刷术，这些都是宋朝对世界文明的巨大贡献。
宋词作为一种新的文学形式在当时非常流行，出现了柳永、苏轼、辛弃疾、李清照等著名词人。沈括是宋代学术和政治方面都非常杰出的优秀人才，他的《梦溪笔谈》涵盖诸多领域，令全世界惊叹不已。
10.元朝(1271年—1368年)
元朝由蒙古族领袖成吉思汗的孙子忽必烈建立，共历11帝163年。元朝逐步采纳汉式政治文化模式。1340年到1350年期间，蒙古政治势力联盟瓦解，朝廷派系活动剧增，腐败奢靡，加之一连串自然灾害，最终导致了农民起义，由此推翻了元朝。
由于元朝统一了国家，经济得到发展，促进了科学文化进步，改善了各民族间的关系，增加了与不同国家的接触交往。第一本记录威尼斯旅行家马可·波罗中国之旅的书籍引起了世人的兴趣和惊叹。
元代多种宗教文化发展兴盛。蒙古人信奉的宗教、佛教和中国传统的道教同时得到发展。文化昌盛，特别是元剧灿烂辉煌，最有影响力的是王实甫的《西厢记》和关汉卿的《窦娥冤》。
11.明朝(1368年—1644年)
公元1368年，农民起义领袖朱元璋称帝，国号明。他把蒙古皇帝赶出首都大都(现北京)，恢复汉人政权。明朝共历16帝277年。初建都南京，1421年迁都至北京。1644年明朝政权被农民起义领袖李自成推翻。
明朝时期，农业和手工业产品的发展带动了商品经济的发展。明朝中叶，资本主义在一些沿海地区的手工产业中萌芽。明朝进行了一些包括修建大运河和长城以及建造紫禁城在内的浩大工程。同时，海外联系日益增加，造船业发达，航海技术进步。著名航海家郑和在1405年到1433年期间七下西洋，穿越南太平洋、印度洋、波斯湾，远及非洲，造访了30多个国家。
明朝文学成就显著，徐霞客的《徐霞客游记》具有很高的科学和文学价值。古典小说《三国演义》《水浒传》《西游记》《金瓶梅》广受欢迎和关注。著名戏剧《牡丹亭》由汤显祖创作，流传至今。
12.清朝(1636年—1911年)
公元1616年，努尔哈赤统一女真部落，建立后金政权，自封为汗。1636年，努尔哈赤之子皇太极改国号为清，建立清朝。1644年，清军占领北京，同年十月迁都北京。清朝共历11帝276年。
清朝在康熙、雍正和乾隆统治期间达到顶峰，称为“康乾盛世”。那时，疆土广阔，商业经济发达，文学艺术繁荣，各种文化兴盛。但是，由于闭关自守政策和腐败，社会矛盾加剧，起义不断，清朝后期逐渐走向衰亡。1840年鸦片战争爆发后，清政府面临国内外危机。最终孙中山领导的辛亥革命推翻了清朝统治。
清朝在道光以前的文化成就巨大，出现了杰出的思想家王夫之、顾炎武及史学家黄宗羲等。当时清朝重视知识和作品的收集，出现了中国历史上乃至世界上堪称规模最大的官修大型丛书《四库全书》，力图囊括古代所有书籍。清朝的小说创作成就最大，有曹雪芹的《红楼梦》、吴敬梓的《儒林外史》等。其他形式的文学作品也成就非凡，短篇小说集有蒲松龄的《聊斋志异》，戏剧作品有洪昇的《长生殿》和孔尚任的《桃花扇》。
13.鸦片战争(1840年—1842年，1856年—1860年)
鸦片战争是中国由封建社会变为半殖民地半封建社会的转折点。
第一次鸦片战争始于1840年，当时英国从英属印度走私大量鸦片到中国，清政府则严禁鸦片进入中国。1839年3月，清朝钦差大臣林则徐到达广州，目的是减少、最终消除鸦片贸易。他厉行朝廷永久禁止鸦片进入中国的命令，逮捕了1 700个不法烟商，通过在鸦片中注水、盐和石灰以及把鸦片抛入大海或当众焚烧等方法销毁了鸦片约260万磅。英国侵略中国的战争从占领香港开始，然后英政府派兵占领广州，攻陷定海、镇海、宁波和上海，沿长江西进，于1842年8月5日到达江宁(南京)。清政府被迫签订了《南京条约》，赔款给英国，开放广州、福州、厦门、宁波和上海五个通商口岸城市，并把香港割让给了英国。
1856年，当清政府拒绝英、法、俄、美的无理要求后，第二次鸦片战争在联军的阴谋下爆发。英国利用中国走私船“亚罗号”事件攻占广州。后英、法、俄、美四国联军攻下大沽炮台，溯河而上到达天津。清政府再一次向外国侵略者屈服，签订了可耻的《天津条约》，开放更多的通商口岸。1860年2月，英法联军(英军人数为11 000，法军人数为6 700)携173艘舰船驶离香港，很快占领了大连和烟台这两座港口城市。英、法联军攻陷天津后，10月13日攻占北京，占领圆明园。在肆意抢劫破坏之后，又放火焚烧了圆明园。10月24日、25日，清朝廷向英、法投降，交换《天津条约》批准书，并签订《北京条约》，第二次鸦片战争至此结束。《北京条约》的规定包括:对英、法赔款增加到800万两白银，把九龙割让给英国，开天津为商埠，鸦片贸易合法化，天主教徒获得公民权等。
清政府在两次鸦片战争中都向西方侵略者屈服，签订了可耻的不平等条约，对中国发展产生了极为严重的后果。中国人民义愤填膺，英勇奋战，引发了太平军起义(1850年—1864年)和义和团运动(1899年—1901年)等，最终清朝于1911年走向灭亡。
14.中华民国(1912年—1949年)
1911年，在民族、民权、民主的“三民主义”思想指引下，孙中山通过辛亥革命，领导人民推翻了清朝政府。中华民国诞生，结束了中国长达2 000多年的封建统治。
1919年，反帝国主义和反封建的五四运动爆发，社会变革剧烈，中国共产党于1921年成立。1937年7月到1945年8月，中国人民与日本侵略者进行了英勇的斗争。抗日战争是中国现代史的又一个转折点，它结束了1840年鸦片战争以来的纷争局面，中国人民的民族精神得到发扬，大家团结一致，同仇敌忾，共同捍卫国家的主权。
15.新中国诞生(1949年)
1949年10月1日，毛泽东主席在天安门城楼上宣布“中国人民站起来了”，中华人民共和国正式成立。北京是新中国的首都，中国人民进入了一个新的时代。
Exercises
Section A Thought-provoking questions
1．Why do Chinese usually call themselves“the descendants of Yan and Huang”or“Hua Xia People”？
2．What is the significance and contribution of the Qin Dynasty？
3．What can we learn from the Opium Wars？
4．What is the purpose for us to get well acquainted with Chinese history？
Section B
1．Translate the following terms into Chinese
(1)the system of hereditary dynastic rule
(2)Hundred Schools of Thought
(3)bronze fittings for chariots and harnesses
(4)the mandate of heaven
(5)Three Departments and Six Ministries System
(6)The land equalization system
(7)the An Lushan＆Shi Siming Rebellion
(8)the Three Principles of the People:nationalism，democracy，and people's livelihood
(9)the 1911 Revolution
(10)the Republic of China
2．Translate the following works into Chinese
(1)The Book of Poetry
(2)Historical Records
(3)Dream Pool Essays
(4)Romance of the Western Chamber
(5)Travel Diaries
(6)The Romance of the Three Kingdoms
(7)Water Margin
(8)Pilgrimage to the West
(9)The Golden Lotus
(10)The Peony Pavilion
(11)A Dream of Red Mansion
(11)The Scholars
(13)Strange Tales of the Make-Do studio
(14)The Hall of Everlasting Life
(15)The Peach Blossom Fan
※You cannot rule men nor serve heaven unless you have laid up a store.This“laying up a store”means quickly absorbing.And“quickly absorbing”means doubling one’s garnered“power”.Double your garnered power and it acquires a strength that nothing can overcome.
From Laozi:Dao De Jing
(治人事天，莫若啬。夫唯啬，是谓早服;早服谓之重积德;重积德则无不克。)
——老子·《道德经》
※Do not worship the ancient ways nor be entrenched in your opinions.Adjust yourself as the times and prevailing custom change.
From Guang Zhong:Guangzi
(不慕古，不留今，与时变，与俗化。)
——管仲·《管子》