Chapter 3 Ancient Chinese Philosophy and Religion中...
Chinese tradition，culture，religion and historical development are greatly influenced by the philosophy of Confucianism，Daoism，two great indigenous philosophical traditions of China，and Buddhism．They guide Chinese in both governing and people's behaviors，and have formed an important part of Chinese traditional values．Chinese philosophy is closely connected with the religion in China．A sound knowledge of Chinese philosophy and the development of Chinese religion will help us to be well acquainted with all the aspects of Chinese culture．
1.Confucianism
Confucianism has influenced the Chinese for thousands of years and is deeply rooted in Chinese culture．Confucianism is an integration of intellectual，political，and religious tradition with the focus on the individual morality and ethics in daily life and the proper exercise of political power．
1)Confucius Thought
Confucius(551 B．C．-479 B．C．)(see picture 3-1)，founder of Confucianism，was not only a great philosopher and thinker but also a distinguished statesman and educator in Chinese history．Confucius laid down a pattern of thinking followed by all the Chinese people in the world．It is believed that no matter what religion，no matter what form of government，the Chinese culture，civilizations and the way of thinking can in some way be shown to have Confucian elements or influences．
The landmark of Confucianism is The Analects，which was written by his disciples after his death．It consists of sayings and answers to the questions raised by his students，usually serving as an introduction to Chinese philosophy and Confucianism．The Analects illustrates the life of Confucius，his mission as a teacher and the main principles and concepts of his philosophy．The core of Confucius'philosophy are the concepts of ren(benevolence)，li(ritual)，and other concepts like xiao(filial piety) and zhong(loyalty)are also important elements of Confucius thought．
Ren is the fundamental virtue of Confucianism．Confucius defines it as“ai ren，”that is，to love others．The Chinese character ren consists of“a person(人)”on the left and“two(二)”on the right indicating the relationship between people．Ren contains benevolence，sympathy，charity，humanity and kindness．Confucius often used the idea of ren to exhort the rulers to be benevolent to the people．He emphasizes that one should never do to others what one would not like to do．In Confucianism，ren is the summation of human virtues，a quality that every human should strive to achieve，and an endless aspiration for ethical perfection．Confucianism strongly advocates reforming government which should be based on the virtue of ren and should work for the benefit of the people，and cultivating virtue especially in government officials．
Li refers to the rules of human conduct and moral norms such as politeness，courtesy，propriety，proper etiquette and good manners ranging from speech and behavior to the performance of rituals which are usually codified and treated as an allembracing system of social norms．Li is intended to regulate men's passions，cultivate their character，and form good habits．Confucius said:“A man who is not benevolent，what can he have to do with ritual？”In Confucius's thought，li cannot be separated from r en and a man without ren is impossible to well exercise li．
Xiao refers to the filial piety，which was regarded as one of the greatest of virtues in Chinese tradition，denoting the respect and obedience that the children should show to their parents．Confucius holds that xiao should start from the love and respect of the parents，and then extend it to the specific duties and veneration to all the elderly and the veteran people of the society．The concept of filial piety has contributed greatly to the stable construction of the family and society and has continued to exert considerable influence on present day Chinese culture．
Confucius also holds that zhong(loyalty)is a great virtue，which emphasizes the obligations and duties to the superior，to friends，family，and spouse．He asserts that cultivation of the self was a central point in a person's life，and every one should try to become a noble person，exerting virtue to the society，having loyalty to the friends and filial piety to the elderly．
2)Mencius'Thought
Mencius(372 B．C．-289 B．C．)(see picture 3-2)，entitled“second sage”in China， was one of the most important philosophers in the Confucian school．His idea that human nature is innately good is one of the basic tenets of Confucianism．
According to Mencius'thought，there are four innate“sprouts”(duan)of the four cardinal virtues—“Compassion is the sprout of benevolence;being aware of shame is the sprout of rightness;paying deference to others is the sprout of ritual propriety;knowledge of good and evil is the sprout of wisdom．”
In order to preserve and extend human's good nature，Mencius believes that man should cultivate the goodness inherent in our nature and serve humanity．The importance of internal concentration or reflection in cultivating an ethical sense is also emphasized and advocated．
3)Four Books and Five Classics
The authoritative books of Confucianism are called“Four Books and Five Classics”，which refer to The Great Learning，The Doctrine of the Mean，The Analects and The Mencius(Four Books)，Classic of Changes，Classic of Poetry，Classic of Rites，Classic of History and Spring and Autumn Annals(Five Classics)．
These works cover widely in the fields of history，literature，philosophy，education，ethics，arts and so on．They have long been considered classic and compulsory textbooks especially in the imperial examination．They are believed to include the basic theories and teachings of self-cultivation and the way to govern the state．
The teachings of Confucius were never intended to be a religion or exercised as a religion，but its impact upon Chinese intellectual，social history and people's conduct is immeasurable and still influential．
2.Daoism
Daoism(or Taoism)，like Confucianism，has made huge contributions to the Chinese philosophical thought．Daoism is based on the theory of Laozi(see picture 3-3)and Zhuang Zi as its basic doctrine．Daoism believes that behind all the material things and all the changes in the world lies one fundamental，universal principle:the Way or Dao．This principle gives rise to all existence and governs everything，every change and every aspect of life．Daoism is of a conception of the universe and a conception of life，which is both naturalistic and mystical．
Laozi or Lao Tzu(570 B．C．-490 B．C．)is the founder of Daoism and the author of Dao De Jing(or Tao Te Ching)．He observed nature with great interest and scrutiny，and he believed that all things are in a constant change between opposites such as being and non-being，have and non-have，success and failure，activity and tranquility．In Dao De Jing，the philosophical elaborations range from the essentials of human nature to the practice of government，with the focus on the relationship between human behavior and the way or Dao and De which are two important conceptions of Daoism．
1)Dao
Dao means a road，the way or the method，the law，the principle people must follow．Dao is unchanging and permeates everything and it is everywhere in the world．
Laozi believes“Dao nourishes everything”．Dao is the essence and ultimate end of all things，and it is the process of reality itself，the way things come together while they are still transforming．Dao is a kind of constant，universal principle that underlies all phenomena．
Dao has no fixed form and sound，and it has always existed and has no beginning of itself．People and everything in the universe should follow Dao，and through Dao everything can be achieved without effort and exertion，without rules and regulations，and without interference with nature．
2)De
De means virtue or quality，and it is the whole of the spontaneity or naturalness of the world derived from Dao．
De is the intrinsic quality of everything in the universe．It is De that makes a man become a real man，so De is the ingrain quality of human being，the summation of man's gift and talent．
Laozi held，“Dao produces a thing;De maintains it．”Zhuang Zi believed“That which things get in order to live is called De．”
The relation between De and Dao is just like that between the water in river．De is what an individual thing receives from Dao，the materialization of Dao．
3)Wuwei
Wuwei is another important tenet of Daoism．Wuwei means“non-doing”，but it does not mean“doing nothing”，yet it does mean“to do or act naturally”，“the effortless action”．
This Daoist philosophical thought involves knowing when to act and when not to act．It is the natural action just as planets revolve around the sun;they“do”this revolving，but without“doing”it;or as trees grow，they“do”，but without“doing”．There is no need for man interfering with the flow of reality，but it is action that should be spontaneous and effortless．
Zhuangzi turns to analogies and fables to illustrate the idea of wuwei，one of which is the story of a butcher called Ding who learned what it means to wuwei through the perfection of his craft．
On the whole，the concept of wuwei is a state of mind for man to gain spiritual peace and tranquility，and it is the principle towards life for man to act naturally or to do the natural things．
4)Dao De Jing
Dao De Jing(Book of the Way and its Power)is the doctrine of Daoism consisting of both prose and poetry with 81 chapters and about 5，000 words．The book is divided into two parts:the Daojing(Chapters 1-37)and the Dejing(Chapters 38-81)．It begins by explaining that“the Dao that can be told of or illustrated is not the same as the Dao that cannot be told of or explained，”which immediately highlights the gist point of the book，which is the significance of Dao．
Dao De Jing is fundamental to both the Daoist school of Chinese philosophy and Chinese religion，and it considerably influenced other schools，such as Legalism，Neo-Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism．Many Chinese artists have taken the advantage of the book as a source of inspiration for artistic creation．
With hundreds of translations into foreign languages，the influence of the Dao De Jing has spread extensively in Asia and even in Europe and America．
5)Zhuangzi
Another important classics of Daoism is Zhuangzi or the Book of Master Zhuang or Nan Hua Jing because Zhuang Zi was conferred with the title“Perfect Man of Nanhua”by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty．
Zhuangzi consists of Inner Chapters(7 chapters)，Outer Chapters(15 chapters)，and Miscellaneous Chapters(11 chapters)．Scholars and experts generally hold that the Inner chapters were written by Zhuang Zi himself and the other chapters are elaborations and explanations of Zhuang Zi's ideas partially written by Zhuang Zi's disciples or supplemented by people of later ages．
Some fables and analogies used by Zhuang Zi to illustrate his ideas have become household idioms，such as“Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly”，“learn the Handan walk”，“the happiness of fish”，“three at dawn and four at dusk”，“Butcher Ding”．
Daoism as religion flourished in the Wei and Jin dynasties．The Tang Dynasty esteemed Daoism and the emperors regarded Laozi as the ancestor of the Royal Li family by revering Laozi as“Tai Shang Xuan Yuan Emperor”(Super-sovereign)．Emperors in Song Dynasty，most notably Huizong，were very active in promoting Daoism．However，Daoism began to decline gradually in Qing Dynasty because the rulers gave preference to Lamaism．
Daoism has been influential in all aspects of Chinese culture，for example，Chinese alchemy，astrology，fengshui culture，witchcraft，some martial arts and styles of qigong，traditional medicine，even cuisine are closely related with Daoism．
3.Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism with a history of about 2，000 years has been playing an important role in forming the outlook of the Chinese people in terms of philosophy，politics，aesthetics，literature，and so on．
1)Development of Buddhism
Buddhism was first introduced to China from India in the early part of the Eastern Han Dynasty and it flourished after the 4th century．Chinese Buddhism integrated the ideas of Confucianism，Daoism and other indigenous philosophical systems，and what was initially a foreign religion came to be a significant part of Chinese civilization with its unique characteristics．
Buddhism in many ways is in conflict with Chinese cultural tradition．For example，Chinese people usually consider the continuation of the generation line to be of tremendous importance，but Buddhism advocates celibacy．Confucianism holds that the human body is the sacred inheritance from one's parents and so it should be protected from being impaired or injured，but Buddhism adheres to asceticism and selfsacrifice．
With the development of Daoism in China，Buddhism was gradually accepted by people because they share the naturalistic and nihilistic philosophical thought．In the Tang Dynasty，Buddhism thrived with the support of the emperors．Xuan Zang began his pilgrimage journey to India．After studying in India for 20 years，Xuan Zang returned with volumes of precious Buddhist scriptures，and he，together with other monks and scholars，dedicated all the time and energy to translating the scriptures into Chinese．Xuan Zang made unique contributions to Chinese Buddhism and greatly enriched Chinese culture．
The two main branches of Buddhism are Theravada and Mahayana，which include Tibetan and Zen Buddhism．Mahayana has been active in Japan，Korea，Nepal，Mongolia，and China，which teaches social concern and universal salvation．Theravada has been the predominant religion of continental Southeast Asia such as Thailand，Myanmar，Cambodia，Laos and Sri Lanka．It is also practiced by some ethnic groups of southwest China．Theravada promotes the concept of self-cultivation and gaining insight from the aspirant's experience，critical investigation，and reasoning instead of by blind faith．
2)The Four Noble Truths
Buddhism held that the world permeates bitterness and suffering and everything is unstable．The Four Noble Truths is one of the basic teachings:
(1)The condition of all existence is suffering;
(2)Suffering is caused by sin;
(3)Sin can be exterminated;
(4)Suffering can be alleviated by the right path of understanding，meditation and endeavour．The Buddhist ideas of transmigration and retribution are also widely accepted．
3)The Concept of Emptiness
The concept of“Emptiness”is another key concept in Buddhism(The Sanskrit word is Sunya)．Emptiness is not nothing，but it is the condition of existence of everything．It permeates all phenomena，making their evolution possible．
Emptiness is an abstract idea representing impermanence，instability，transience and relativity in the nature of all existence．According to Buddhism，nothing is permanent and everything is dependent on causes and conditions．Whenever the causes and conditions that produce or sustain a phenomenon are removed，that phenomenon will cease to exist．
Furthermore，In the Avatamsaka Sutra we can read this gatha:“All things are birthless．All things have no extinction．You are also like that．If you know how to look at things this way，you can see and touch all Buddhas at any time．”
4)Buddha，Amitabha and Guan Yin Bodhisattva
According to the Lotus Sutra，everyone has the Buddhata，and the Buddha is full of compassion，and that is why Shakyamuni Buddha always tries to help．
Amitabha is the Sanskrit word，and literally it means boundless light and boundless life．According to Buddhism，people recite or call upon his name by the time of dying will be born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss with the reception by Amitabha．
Bodhisattva，who is called Guan Shi Yin or Guan Yin Bodhisattva，is very popular in China．Originally represented as a male，the images are now generally those of a female figure．It is believed that she has the greatest compassion and mercy and rescues all beings by hearing their voices of suffering and cries for help．Guan Yin can transform into many different shapes in order to cross over to the beings．
5)Eight Precepts，Eight Sufferings，the Winds of the Eight Directions and Eight Right Ways
The Buddhist Eight Precepts，Eight Sufferings，the Winds of the Eight Directions，Eight Right Ways are very important in the practice of Buddhism．
The Buddhist Eight Precepts are:
(1)No killing;
(2)No stealing;
(3)No sexual misconduct;
(4)No lying;
(5)No alcoholic drink;
(6)No cosmetic，no personal adornments;
(7)No sleeping on fine beds;
(8)No eating after noon．
According to Buddhism，there are Eight Sufferings for human to be tortured while living．They are:
(1)Suffering of birth;
(2)Suffering of old age;
(3)Suffering of sickness;
(4)Suffering of death;
(5)Suffering of being apart from the loved ones;
(6)Suffering of being together with the despised ones;
(7)Suffering of not getting what one wants;
(8)Suffering of the flourishing of the five skandhas．
Most people are usually moved by the Winds of the Eight Directions．They are:
(1)Praise;
(2)Ridicule;
(3)Suffering;
(4)Happiness;
(5)Benefit;
(6)Destruction;
(7)Gain;
(8)Loss．
There are Eight Right Ways leading to Nirvana:
(1)Right view;
(2)Right thought;
(3)Right speech;
(4)Right action;
(5)Right livelihood;
(6)Right effort;
(7)Right remembrance;
(8)Right concentration．
Buddhism has been playing the mainstream role in Chinese religious life and it has exerted tremendous influence on Chinese culture together with its process of localization．It provides a new approach to the development of Chinese philosophy，and the translation of Buddhist scriptures has added something unique to the classic Chinese literature，commencing the field of translation study．The Buddhist influence on the Chinese painting，architecture and even dancing is also of considerable value．
Word Bank
Confucianism儒教，儒家
Daoism，Taoism道教
The Analects《论语》
benevolence仁爱，慈善
filial piety孝，孝顺
rituals礼节，仪式
Four Books and Five Classics四书五经
The Great Learning《大学》
The Doctrine of the Mean《中庸》
Classic of Changes《周易》
Classic of Poetry《诗经》
Classic of Rites《礼记》
Classic of History《尚书》
Spring and Autumn Annals《春秋》
Dao De Jing，Tao Te Ching《道德经》
Perfect Man of Nanhua南华真人
household idioms家喻户晓的成语
Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly庄周梦蝶
learn the Handan walk邯郸学步
three at dawn and four at dusk朝三暮四
Butcher Ding庖丁
Lamaism喇嘛教
alchemy炼丹术
astrology占星术
fengshui culture风水文化
witchcraft巫术
martial arts武术
celibacy独身，禁欲
asceticism禁欲主义，苦行
Theravada小乘佛教
Mahayana大乘佛教
transmigration轮回
retribution报应
Sanskrit梵语
gatha偈言，偈语，偈颂(佛经中的唱颂词)
Avatamsaka Sutra《华严经》
the Lotus Sutra《法华经》
Shakyamuni Buddha释迦牟尼佛
Amitabha＜梵＞[佛]阿弥陀佛
Bodhisattva菩萨，观世音菩萨
Eight Precepts八戒
Land of Ultimate Bliss极乐世界
参考译文
中国的传统文化和历史发展都深受中国本土传统哲学儒家思想和道家思想以及外来的、后又融入本土的佛家思想的影响。中国的统治和人们的行为准则都受其指导，成为中国传统价值观的重要部分。中国的哲学思想与中国的宗教也有着密不可分的联系。对中国哲学和宗教发展的了解有助于深入了解中国文化的方方面面。
1.儒家
儒家思想影响中国几千年，在中国文化中根深蒂固。儒家思想是一种思想、政治和宗教传统的结合，其重点在于人们日常生活中的个人道德规范和政治权利的恰当行使。
1)孔子思想
孔子(公元前551年—公元前479年)(见图5-1)是中国伟大的思想家、哲学家和儒家学派创始人，他还是中国历史上杰出的政治家和教育家。他的学说和哲学思想影响了全世界的华人。不管他们信仰哪种宗教，不管哪个朝代，中国文化和中国人的思维中都能体现儒家思想的影响。
儒家思想的重要标志《论语》，由孔子的弟子及再传弟子编纂而成，记录孔子及其弟子的言行，往往作为了解中国哲学思想和儒家学说的入门。《论语》记录了孔子的生活，诠释了其教育使命和哲学理念的基本思想。孔子哲学思想的核心理念是“仁”“礼”“孝”“忠”等。
“仁”是儒家的基本道德观。孔子认为“仁”就是爱别人。中国字“仁”就是“人”加上“二”，表明了人与人之间的关系。“仁”涵盖了仁爱、同情、慈善、人性和善良。孔子常常用“仁”来告诫统治者对人民要行善。他认为:“己所不欲勿施于人。”在儒家思想中，“仁”是人性的集合，是每个人都应该努力具备的品质，是不断追求道德完美的渴望。儒家强烈提倡仁政，为人民谋利，官员要有德行。
“礼”指的是人们的行为准则和道德规范，如:礼貌、谦恭、得体、恰当和良好的礼节，包括从说话、举止行为到仪式中的表现。这些“礼”的要求往往是规定的，人们把它作为社会和生活的准则来对待。“礼”意在调控情绪、修养性格、形成良好习惯。孔子说:“人而不仁，如礼何？”“礼”在孔子的思想体系中是同“仁”分不开的，一个不仁的人也不可能是一个很好施礼的人。
“孝”指的是对父母的尊敬和顺从，是中国传统美德中最重要的部分之一。孔子认为“孝”源自对父母的爱和尊敬，而后延伸及对社会上老年人的尊重和责任。“孝”的理念对家庭和社会的稳定作用很大，至今在中国社会文化中有着较大的影响。
孔子认为“忠”也是一大美德，它是对上级、朋友、家庭和配偶的一种责任和义务。他声称“修己”是人生的重要任务，每个人应该努力成为一个君子，对社会道德，对朋友忠诚，对长者孝顺。儒家思想对中国思想、社会历史和人们操行的影响不可估量，至今仍有很大影响。
2)孟子思想
被加封为“亚圣”的孟子(公元前372年—公元前289年)(见图5-2)是儒家学派中最重要的哲学家之一。他的“性善说”是儒家的重要思想基础之一。
根据孟子的学说，人性之所以是善的，是因为人生来就具有“善端”:“恻隐之心，仁之端也;羞恶之心，义之端也;辞让之心，礼之端也;是非之心，智之端也。”(《孟子·公孙丑上》)
为了维持并延伸人的“善性”，孟子认为人要修身养性，为人造福。他也很注重内省的道德修养。
3)四书五经
儒家思想的权威书籍是“四书五经”。“四书”指的是《大学》《中庸》《论语》《孟子》这四本著作;“五经”指的是《周易》《诗经》《礼记》《尚书》和《春秋》。
四书五经内容涉及面广，包括史学、文学、哲学、教育、伦理、艺术等各个方面，一直被奉为经典和必读书籍，尤其在科举考试中。人们认为其中有修身之学，有治国之道。
儒家思想从未被作为一种宗教来信奉，但它对中国的思想、文化、社会历史和人们的操行产生了不可估量的影响，至今在中国和亚洲仍影响很大。
2.道家
与儒家思想一样，道家思想对中国哲学思想做出了巨大贡献。道家把老子和庄子的理论作为其思想学说，核心理念是“道”，“道生万物”。“道”是世上所有物质和变化的法则，统治世上一切的变化和生命。道家思想是宇宙论与生命论的学说，具有自然主义和神秘主义特点。
老子(公元前570年—公元前490年)(见图3-3)是道教的创始人，也是《道德经》的作者。他饶有兴趣又非常仔细地观察大自然。他认为天地万物都相反相成，如:兴旺与衰亡、有为与无为、成功与失败、喧嚣与宁静。《道德经》一书中的思想讨论涉及人性本质、统治理念等，重点强调人的行为“道”与“德”的关系。
1)道
“道”的意思是道路、途径或方法、规律、人们必须遵守的法则。“道”是一成不变的，渗透万物，世上随处可见。
老子指出:“道生万物”，“道”是万物的精髓和终极，是使万物得以相生、相续、转化发展的实现性原理。“道”是一种永恒的、涵盖所有现象的宇宙准则。
“道”无形状，无声无息，无始无终，永恒不灭。人与天地万物皆应循“道”而为。循“道”行事，可轻松自在、无章无法、不扰自然而获成就。
2)德
“德”的意思是美德或品质，是万物顺应“道”而形成的自性或本然。
“德”是万物各自的一种内在的品质。“德”使人之所以成为人，所以“德”是人的本质，是人的天赋才能的总汇。
老子认为:“道生之，德畜之。”庄子认为:“物得以生谓之德”。
“道”与“德”的关系犹如水在河中的关系。“德”是从“道”中而来的个体事物，是“道”的体现。
3)无为
“无为”是道家思想的另一个重要原则。“无为”并非无所作为，而是指顺应自然、不妄为。
这一道家思想包含应知道何时去“为”，何时不去“为”。“为”与“不为”须顺自然，犹如行星环绕太阳转，它们转但并非自觉转，或者像树的成长，是自然而然并非刻意。人不必干预自然去作为，而应顺其自然去作为。
庄子用类比法或寓言来阐明无为思想，如“庖丁解牛”的故事告诉人们，技艺精湛可达到无为境界。
总之，“无为”是一种怡然自得、平和虚静的心态，是一种能顺其自然的生活原则。
4)《道德经》
《道德经》是道家的经典，用散文和诗歌形式撰写。共81章，5 000字左右。该书分为两部分:道经(第1－37章)和德经(第38－81章)。开首就指出:“道可道，非常道。”突出了本书的重点是“道”的意义。
《道德经》是中国哲学和宗教——道教学派的基础，也深刻地影响了别的学派，如法家、新儒学派和中国的佛教。许多中国艺术家从该书中获得创作灵感。
《道德经》被翻译成多种外国文字，其影响遍及亚洲、欧洲乃至美洲。
5)《庄子》
另外一部道家的重要经典书籍是《庄子》，又称为《南华经》，因为唐朝玄宗皇帝封庄子为“南华真人”。
《庄子》一书分为《内篇》(7章)、《外篇》(15章)和《杂篇》(11章)。学者和专家一般认为《内篇》为庄子本人所写，而其他阐释庄子思想的篇章由庄子的门徒撰写或由后人增补。
庄子运用类比和寓言法来阐释道理的例子已成为家喻户晓的成语，如“庄周梦蝶”“邯郸学步”“安知鱼乐”“朝三暮四”“庖丁解牛”。
道教作为宗教兴盛于魏晋。唐代崇奉道教，尊祖老子，封老子为“太上玄元皇帝”。道教在宋朝仍被推崇，尤其得到宋徽宗的器重。到了清朝由于朝廷转向喇嘛教，道教逐渐衰落。
道教在中国文化各方面都有很大的影响，如中国的炼丹术、占星术、风水文化、巫术、武术，甚至气功、医药和饮食都和道教关系密切。
3.佛教
中国的佛教已有2 000年的历史，对中国人世界观的形成起到很大的作用，在哲学、政治、美学和文学等方面影响颇大。
1)佛教的发展
佛教在东汉早期传入中国，公元4世纪后开始兴盛。中国的汉传佛教融合了儒教、道教和其他本土哲学的思想理念，使一个外来的宗教成为具有中国特色的、中华文明中重要的一部分。
佛教在不少方面与中国传统文化有冲突。譬如:中国人一般认为传宗接代是件大事，而佛教却提倡独身禁欲;儒教认为“身体发肤，受之父母，不敢毁伤”，而佛教坚持克己与节制的苦行生活。
随着道教在中国的发展，佛教也慢慢为人所接受，因为两者皆有自然主义和虚无主义的哲学思想。从唐代开始，由于得到皇家支撑，佛教发展兴盛。玄奘开始了去印度的朝圣旅行。在印度学习了20年后，他带回许多经卷，并与其他和尚和学者一起倾注大量时间和精力翻译经书。玄奘对中国佛教贡献独特，大大地丰富了中国文化。
佛教主要分支是小乘佛教和大乘佛教。大乘佛教流传于日本、朝鲜、尼泊尔、蒙古和中国，教导人们关心社会和普度众生。小乘佛教集中在东南亚地区，如:泰国、缅甸、柬埔寨、老挝、斯里兰卡等国家和中国西南地区的一些少数民族。小乘佛教注重个人修行和悟道，悟道则源于个人的体验、观察和分析，不是盲目的信仰。
2)“四真谛”
佛教认为世间充满了痛苦，一切事物都是无常的。“四真谛”是基本教义之一，即——
“苦”:活着就是痛苦;
“集”:苦的原因是罪孽或业;
“灭”:苦、集是可以消除的;
“道”:消业要有正确的理解和修行途径。
佛教的轮回和报应理念也广为接受。
3)“空”
“空”(梵语为Sunya)是佛教的另一重要理念。“空”并非一切皆无，而是万物生存的条件。它渗透一切现象，使进化成为可能。
“空”是一种抽象的理念，代表无常、不定、稍纵即逝和大自然生物的相对性。佛教认为没有一成不变的东西，万物皆有因果，没有因果事物即不存在。
另外，在《华严经》中我们可以读到这样的偈颂:“一切法无生，亦复无有灭，若能如是解，斯人见如来。”
4)佛、“阿弥陀佛”和观世音菩萨
根据《法华经》，每个人都具有佛性，佛由慈悲所成，所以释迦牟尼佛愿意尽力帮助大众。
“阿弥陀佛”梵文的意思是“无量光”“无量寿”。根据佛教，临终前吟诵或呼叫“阿弥陀佛”的名字，阿弥陀佛会在极乐世界迎接。
观世音菩萨或观音菩萨在中国流传甚广，其原为男像，现在一般均以女像出现。人们认为她大慈大悲，听到呼唤和受难声就会去救苦救难。观音菩萨可以随机应变出种种化身，前往拯救众生的苦难。
5)八戒、八苦、八风、八正道
佛家中“八戒、八苦、八风、八正道”的理念很重要。
“八戒”是:一戒杀生，二戒偷盗，三戒淫侈，四戒妄语，五戒饮酒，六戒着香华，七戒坐卧丽床，八戒非时食。
人在世上有“八苦”，即:生苦、老苦、病苦、死苦、爱别离苦、怨憎苦、求不得苦、五阴炽盛苦(五阴即是五蕴，五阴集聚成身，如火炽燃，前七苦皆由此而生。)
人容易受“八风”影响，即:誉、讥、苦、乐、利、毁、得、失。
有“八正道”可以达到佛教最高理想境地的涅槃，即:正见(正确的见解)、正志(正确的思维)、正语(不妄语)、正业(正确的行为)、正命(正当生活)、正精进(毫不懈怠地修行)、正念(念念不忘四谛真理)、正定(专心致志地修习)。
佛教在中国人的宗教生活中起着主流作用，随着其本地化进程，对中国文化影响巨大。它为中国哲学的发展提供了一个新的途径，而佛经的翻译为中国古典文学添上了独特的一笔，并且开创了翻译研究领域。佛教对中国绘画、建筑乃至舞蹈的影响都具有很大的价值。
Section A Thought-provoking questions
1．What exerts the most important influence on Chinese tradition and culture in terms of philosophy and religion？Why？
2．What is the core of Confucius'philosophy？What is the relationship between ren and li in Confucius concepts？
3．What is Dao and De？What is the relationship between Dao and De？
4．In what way is Buddhism in conflict with Chinese cultural tradition？Please explain with examples．
5．In what way will the knowledge of Chinese philosophy and religion help us to have a better understanding of Chinese culture？
Section B Fill in the blanks with appropriate words or phrases
1．Four Books and Five Classics are regarded as the authoritative books of Confucianism．Four Books include______，______，______，and______;Five Classics include______，______，______，______，and______．
2．Daoism is based on the theory of______and______as its basic doctrine．
3．The two main branches of Buddhism are Theravada and Mahayana，which includes______Buddhism and______Buddhism．
4．The Buddhist Eight Precepts is very important which includes:______，______，______，______，______，no cosmetic，personal adornments，no sleeping on fine beds and no eating after noon．
5．Eight Sufferings for human to be tortured while living are:suffering of birth，suffering of______，suffering of______，suffering of______，suffering of______，suffering of______，suffering of not getting what one wants，suffering of the flourishing of the Five Skandhas．
※To understand others is to have knowledge;to understand oneself is to be illuminated.To conquer others needs strength;to conquer oneself is harder still to be content with what one has is to be rich.
From Laozi:Dao De Jing
(知人者智，自知者明。胜人者有力，自胜者强。知足者富。)
——老子·《道德经》
※Man is not endowed with knowledge when he is born.Who then can avoid？Where man is confused but refuses to consult with a teacher，his perplexities will never be removed.
From Han Yu:The Way of Teaching
(人非生而知之者，孰能无惑？惑而不从师，其为惑也，终不解矣。)
——韩愈·《师说》