Chapter 13 Ancient Chinese Martial Arts中国古代武术
1.Chinese Martial Arts
1)History
Ancient Chinese martial arts(or Wushu in Chinese)are different from modern ones．The ancient martial arts were developed for military use．Not until after the Spring and Autumn Period did martial arts begin to incorporate sophisticated aspects of ancient Chinese culture．
The precise origin of martial arts is too remote to identify．When the Qin Dynasty conquered contending states and united China，the ruler ordered all weapons be put in storage．Discouraged by the Qin government，Chinese martial arts developed very little during this period．
Martial art development picked up during the Han Dynasty，a period noted for its advanced political，economic and cultural development．During the Western and Eastern Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties，warfare was rampant．Minority ethnic groups such as the Huns，Xianbei，Jie，Di and Qiang from northern China were constantly invading the Central Plains．The battlefield provided a good environment for the development of martial arts．
The Sui and Tang Dynasties were politically stable and economically strong and flourished with foreign trade and cultural exchanges．This period saw modifications of martial arts and improvement in the appearance of demonstrative exercises．The prevailing imperial examination system of the Tang Dynasty was also adapted for the selection of martial arts champions．Soldiers with outstanding martial arts skills were honored with commendation and titles．Martial arts were encouraged and promoted among ordinary people．
By the Song Dynasty，martial arts had become an art separate from military drills．Routine and apparatus exercises developed quickly，and many theoretical works were published．Practitioners studied both fighting skills and theory and introduced the theory of“yin”and“yang”into martial arts．
During the Yuan Dynasty，the Mongol ruling class and soldiers practiced martial arts as well as horse riding，and wrestling．There martial arts skills were performed on stage and were gradually more artfully refined．
During the Ming Dynasty，different martial arts schools flourished．The Qing Dynasty outperformed the previous dynasties in developing martial arts skills．Many exercises that are still famous today，such as Taijiquan(Taiji Boxing)and Baguazhang (Eight-Trigram Palm Exercise)，were created during the period．
2)Characteristics
Literally，wu means military while shu means art，thus Wushu the art of fighting or martial arts．Wushu is an important and unique component of Chinese cultural heritage with centuries of cultural history attached．Wushu not only includes physical exercise but also Chinese philosophy，and aesthetics．
With vigorous，graceful and somewhat laborious movements，Chinese martial arts provide the exercisers with beauty and strength．The persistent exercises will build up their body and strength．Martial arts involve methods and skills for fighting．They incorporate highly practical consecutive movements including jumping，falling，passing through，somersaulting，retreating，shaking，turning，kicking，hitting，wrestling，seizing，etc．
The consecutive movements should be done in close sequences so as to overcome the movements of the opponent．Any slight neglect in the gestures of hands，legs and body and in the timing will result in favoring the opponent．So，the Chinese martial arts emphasize the gestures and timing．
To attain the true essence，the Chinese martial arts stress guidance by masters，and conscientious practice．The exerciser should practice diligently until he can carry out the movements unhesitatingly and very naturally．
The Chinese martial arts stress perfection．From the angle of the art of attack and defense，there are three grades of martial arts:the inferior-grade exerciser does not master the arts at all;the middle-grade exerciser is skilled in the art，and concentrates his attentions in fighting;the senior-grade exerciser has a high degree of dexterity and carries out his movements very naturally to beat the opponent．His arts attain perfection．
2.Chinese Martial Arts and Other Fields
1)Martial Arts and Ancient Chinese Philosophy
Martial arts were developed under the great influence of ancient Chinese culture and they have benefited a lot from ancient Chinese philosophy．The Spring and Autumn Period was a golden age of academic study and resulted in different schools of philosophical thinking that would lay a solid foundation for the subsequent formation of Chinese culture．Ancient Chinese philosophy advocated the theory of Dao，and held that the Dao was connected with both the heaven and the earth and was the source of everything．Martial arts practitioners begin with the irregularity and infinity of Dao and seek to reach a stage in which he or she blends harmoniously with nature．The arts teach practitioners to train the inner spirit and mind as well as the external muscles，bones and skin．Martial arts stress the combination of the physical being with the mental being and emphasize a close relationship between physical exercises and the surrounding environment．Practitioners are advised to use different methods of exercises according to the changes of natural environment and the conditions of the body．These practices reflect martial arts understanding of the ancient philosophy:let the mind swing freely in Dao and the oneness of man and nature．
2)Chinese Martial Arts and Ancient Chinese Aesthetics
Ancient Chinese aesthetics advocated a balance between hardness and softness，voidness and solidness，notion and stillness，and negative and positive，as well as the expression of the spirit of an object through its form．Under this influence，Chinese martial arts have formed their own aesthetic standards that incorporate a stage of conceptual contentment，harmony，and nature，as well as beauty and elegance．For example，Changquan(Long Boxing)features fully extended，elegant and unrestrained movements;Nanquan(South Boxing)demonstrates steadiness and momentum of movements;Shaolin Boxing expresses resolution and strength in its quick and rhythmical movements;and the beautifully and smoothly stringed movements of Taiji Boxing remind viewers of floating clouds and flowing streams．
A distinct aspect of Chinese martial arts is the advocacy of morals and emphasis on benevolence，fidelity and sincerity．Benevolence is the core of Confucianism．It includes love and generosity．As a result，practicing martial arts implies not only building health and strength，but also purifying one's soul．Chinese martial arts work for those who are benevolent，brave，and courageous．The arts stress that the moral level of a practitioner is as important as his or her martial arts skills．
3)Martial Arts and Morality
Traditional Chinese schools of martial arts，such as the famed Shaolin monks，often dealt with the study of martial arts not just as a means of self-defense or mental training，but as a system of wude，which can be translated as“martial morality”and is constructed from two Chinese characters，“wu”which means martial and“de”which means morality．Wude deals with two aspects:“morality of deed”and“morality of mind”．Morality of deed concerns social relations;morality of mind is meant to cultivate the inner harmony between the emotional mind(Xin)and the wisdom mind (Hui)．The ultimate goal is reaching no extremity(Wuji)(closely related to the Taoist concept of wuwei)，where both wisdom and emotions are in harmony with each other．
3.Three Main Boxing Schools in China
1)Shaolin Wushu(or Shaolin Boxing)
Chinese Martial arts are divided into two main categories:the Northern and the Southern．Shaolin leads the Northern category．It combines both external and internal，and“hard”and“soft”exercises．
Boxing is the foundation of Wushu and Shaolin Boxing serves as the basis of other kinds of Wushu．The Shaolin Boxing has compactly designed routines．Its movements are quick，powerful and flexible，both practical for defense and attack．
The most outstanding characteristic of Shaolin Boxing is that the practitioner works on one straight line．It means that his movements of advancing，retreating，turning around，sideways，or jumping are restrained on one line．His arms are kept slightly bent so that he can stretch out to attack or withdraw for self defense freely．
Another characteristic of Shaolin Wushu is to maintain the body in perfect balance，as stable as a mountain．The practitioners should keep a tranquil mind but strike with great force and speed．He should be good at“borrowing”force from the opponent．That is，he should take advantage of the striker's force and go along with it to bring him to ward off a force of a thousand weights．He should know how to make feigned strikes and when striking，hit the vital parts of the opponent．His movements should be as dexterous as a cat，his shaking as a tiger，his moving as a dragon，his advancing as lightning and his yelling as thunder．
The practice of Shaolin Wushu does not need a large space．It is said that Shaolin Boxing can fight within an area where a cow can lie down．It is not affected by weather，or the kind of weapons used．So Shaolin Wushu has become a very convenient sport．
In 1982，a feature film“Shaolin Monastery”was released on the mainland China，in Hong Kong，Macao and abroad．Due to its popularity，the number of visitors to Shaolin Monastery to learn Wushu or for sightseeing increases day by day．Wushu teaching schools have been set up．In 1985，there were more than 40 of them，with students from 20 provinces，municipalities and autonomous regions．In early 1986，the county government combined the schools into five in order to guarantee their quality．In the past several years，many students from these schools have gone on to join professional Wushu teams or sports colleges，and some have become coaches of Wushu teams in other provinces and cities．
Shaolin Wushu got its name from the Shaolin Monastery，and the Monastery became famous for Shaolin Wushu．
2)The Eight-Trigram Boxing
The Eight-Trigram Boxing is characterized by changing positions of the palms and changing paces．Its fighting principle is the“combination of attack and defense”．It stresses the stratagem:“I move before my opponent moves，halt before my opponent halts;when my opponent attacks，I defend;when my opponent exhausts himself，I keep energetic;when my opponent retreats，I advance;when my opponent moves，I watch my opponent while he is moving，and discover and make use of opportunities; when my opponent is near，I attack him;I extricate myself and then attack my opponent，and while my opponent is not moving，I move．”The stratagem prefers sideways attack to frontal assail．
3)Taiji Boxing
Taiji Boxing，named after the term“tai ji”(supreme ultimate from the Book of Changes)，was believed to be composed of by King Wen of the Zhou Dynasty．The term means that the universe was an entirety before it divided into heaven and earth．The Taiji Boxing has been sourced from many forms of folk boxing，and has been improved on through several generations．
Taiji Boxing is characterized by the unification of mind，breath and motions (body)，requiring concentration of mind and calmness of motions．Mind works as a commander and body a soldier．When in motion，all of the body moves．When at rest，all of the body rests．Calmness is required for motion．Simple force is not preferred．Force is like a wheel and waist is its axis．The motions are continuous as a circle．The breath is deep and controlled by the diaphragm．Be concentrated，gentle and natural．Be stable as a mountain when not moving，and be flowing as a river when moving．The moves are characterized by roundness，softness，slowness，stability and evenness．They are extended but very well coordinated，and all are an antithetical unity of Yin and Yang(negative and positive)．These principles are the same for all schools of Taiji Boxing，though their types are different．There are mainly five types:Chen-Type，Yang-Type，Sun-Type，Wuu-Type，and Wu-Type．
4.Martial Arts’Prospect
In the past，Wushu was developed for the sake of military prowess and physical well being．Wushu was seen as crucial to a soldier's survival in the time of hand-to-hand combat．Today，military function has faded and it has been organized and systematized into a formal branch of study in the performance arts by the Chinese．Its physical welfare and athletic functions become dominant．Hence Wushu is popular among the whole nation of China，practiced by men and women，young and old alike．Today many people practice Wushu to pursue health，defense skills，mental discipline，entertainment and competition．
Recently，Chinese Wushu has been modernized．Training and competing standard systems have been set up．Continuing its fighting function，Wushu becomes a more athletic and aesthetic performance and competitive sport．More and more foreigners come to learn the mysterious Wushu．In order to promote Wushu internationally，China Zhengzhou International Shaolin Wushu Festival will be held twice annually．
Among the many styles are Changquan(long boxing)，Nanquan(southern boxing)，Taijiquan(shadow boxing or supreme ultimate boxing)，Xingyi quan(mind boxing)，Baguaquan(eight-trigram boxing)．The former two belong to the external style which emphasizes physical strength and abilities while the latter three belong to the internal style that depends upon internal power—qi．
Wushu was last seen at the Olympics in 1936 when a small Chinese team performed during the Berlin Olympics．Wushu is known to many people around the world but has yet not become as popular as Japan's judo and Korea's taekwondo．To push for Wushu to become an Olympic competing item，China has much to learn from Japan and South Korea in promoting the martial arts to International Olympic Committee(IOC)members and the world．Japan successfully pushed for judo's inclusion at the Tokyo Olympics in 1964，while South Korea's taekwondo made it to the Olympics 12 years after the 1988 Seoul Olympics．
IOC president Jacques Rogge told Chinese media during the 10th National Games that the IOC had agreed in principle to allow the Beijing Organizing Committee to hold a Wushu tournament on the sidelines of the 2008 Games．The IOC has tried to streamline the summer Olympics and freeze the number of sports．
Chinese sporting authorities say Wushu is part of China's 5，000 years of civilization and its presence at the Olympics is in line with the spirit of a“Humanity Olympics”，one of the three themes for 2008．Besides，only two of the 28 competition sports at the Olympics originated，and were modernized，in the east．Therefore，the inclusion of Wushu in 2008 will help promote cultural exchanges between East and West．
Chinese sports officials began pushing for Wushu's inclusion as a competition sport in the Olympics in the late 1990s and lodged a formal application with the IOC in December，2001．But the IOC postponed a decision at an assembly in Prague in July，2003．
The International Wushu Federation(IWF)passed a new set of rules for Wushu tournaments at the 8th World Wushu Championship in the Vietnamese capital of Hanoi．The rules were more scientific and objective．In rehearal for the Beijing Olympic Games，the 9th world Wushu Championship was held at Beijing in November，2007．But Wushu's acceptance into the Olympics still needs time．However，we are expecting it！
Word Bank
incorporate将某事物包括进去，包含，整合，合并
modification改变，改型
routine武术套路，舞蹈中的成套动作
apparatus器械，设备
practitioner习艺者，实习者
consecutive连续的
somersault翻滚，翻跟头
sequence次序，顺序
voidness虚，空
momentum冲力，势头
advocacy拥护，提倡，主张
compactly严实地，紧凑地，严谨地
feigned假装的，虚假的
dexterous灵巧的，手巧的
restrain抑制，约束，管制
extricate释放
assail猛攻，猛击
comprise包括，组成
prowess勇猛，英勇
Word Bank
参考译文
1.中国武术
1)中国武术的历史
中国古代武术不同于现代武术。古代武术缘起于军事目的，但从春秋战国时期开始，它就融入中国博大精深的古代文化之中。
中国武术起源何时，尚无定论。秦始皇统一中国后，他下令收缴兵器，在朝廷的打压控制下，武术发展缓慢。
随着汉朝政治、经济和文化的发展，武术也发展起来。魏晋南北朝时期，战争频繁，北方少数民族如匈奴、鲜卑、羯、氐、羌等不断侵扰中原，战争促进了武术的发展。
隋、唐两个时期都具有政治稳定、经济繁荣、中外交往频繁的特点，中国的武术也不断完善和改进。武术作为当时非常盛行的科举考试的内容之一被用于选拔武官。武艺杰出的士兵会被授予嘉奖和官衔。民间的武术也得到了促进和发展。
宋朝的武术不同于军事技能，已经发展成为一门艺术。武术套路不断完善，器械得到改进，并且也出现了有关武术的理论著作。习武者不仅练习武技，还研究理论，将中国传统的“阴”“阳”理论运用到武术中。
元朝的统治者和士兵既练骑马、摔跤，又要习武。那时的武术日臻完美优雅。
明、清时期涌现出很多武术学校，武术技艺在清朝时期的发展超过以往任何朝代，现在还很盛行的太极拳、八卦掌等就是在那时发展起来的。
2)中国武术的特点
从词汇意义上讲，“武”即“武力”，“术”即“艺术”，合在一起即“武术”。武术有着很长时间的文化历史，是中国传统文化的重要组成部分。它不仅是一种体育锻炼，而且也包含着中国的哲学、美学思想。
中国武术刚劲有力、动作优美，是力与美的完美结合。坚持不懈地习武可以强身健体。中国武术包括搏击的方法和技巧。它包括跳、倒、插、翻、退、闪、转、踢、击、摔、拿等一系列连续动作。这些动作要求一气呵成，如行云流水，这样才能克敌制胜。任何小的失误，无论是手部动作、腿部动作，还是时机选择，都可能使对手有利，让自己处于不利的地位。因此，中国武术十分强调动作与时机的协调。
领会中国武术的精神实质，需要师傅的指导和坚持不懈的操练。各种套路要能运用自如，炉火纯青，非下苦功不可。
中国武术讲究完美。从攻、防角度来讲，武艺可分三等:初级、中级和高级。初级习武者根本谈不上掌握了武艺;中级习武者技术娴熟，专心武术。高级习武者动作流畅自然，处险不惊，从容应对，这样的武艺就称得上完美。
2.中国武术与其他领域
1)中国武术与中国古代哲学
中国武术深受中国文化的影响，尤其是中国古代哲学的影响。春秋战国时期，百家争鸣，学派林立，为中国文化奠定了扎实基础。中国古代哲学崇尚“道”，“道”强调“天人合一”，中国武术深受道教这一思想的影响，每一个习武者都在追求这种精神境界。武术的目的不仅在于强身健体，而且也在于陶冶性情、磨炼意志。它强调身体健康，也强调心灵健康，强调个人与环境的和谐关系，做到人的心性与自然的和谐统一。习武者根据环境的变化和不同的身体条件采用不同的操练方法。这反映了中国武术所包含的传统哲学思想即道家思想:天人合一。
2)中国武术与古代中国美学
古代中国美学注重刚与柔、虚与实、动与静、阴与阳以及神与形的平衡、统一。在这些观念的影响下，中国武术形成了自身的审美标准和尺度，中国武术刚柔相济、动静结合、自然优美。如长拳舒展、雅致，灵活多变;南拳稳重，动作有力;少林拳刚劲有力，动作敏捷，节奏分明;太极拳舒缓优雅，行云流水。
中国武术另一个审美特点是强调“仁、忠、孝”。“仁”是儒家的核心，包括爱和宽容。中国武术不仅强调强身健体，还注重心灵的净化。武术是为那些“仁、忠、孝”之人服务的。一个习武者的道德水平与他的武术技艺同样重要。
3)武术与道德
传统的武术流派，像有名的少林武术，不仅认为武术是防身的手段或精神强化，而且强调习武者必须讲究武德。汉语中“武德”由“武”(武术)和“德”(道德)组成，这里的“德”既包括“德行”，也包括“德心”。前者是从社会关系层面上来讲的，后者是指达到心和智的和谐。终极的目标是“无极”(与老子“无为”的观点很类似)，即心智统一。
3.中国三大武术流派
1)少林武术
中国武术分为南、北两派。北派的代表是少林武术。它融内外、刚柔于一体。
拳术是武术的基础，少林拳术又是其他武术的基础。少林拳套路严谨，动作敏捷有力，灵活多变，攻防结合。
一个显著特点是习武者走直线即前进、后退、转身、侧移、跳远等必须沿一条直线运动。手、背稍有弯曲，攻守有力自由。
少林武术的另一个特点是身体必须完全平衡，稳如泰山。习武者头脑冷静，攻击出其不意，凶狠有力。习武者擅长借助对方的力量，出奇制胜。他的动作“秀如猫，抖如虎，行如龙，动如闪，声如雷”。
练习少林武术不需要很大的地方，据说只要一头牛可以躺得下的地方就可以习武。它不受天气的影响，也不受任何器械的影响。因此，它现在变成了一种非常方便的体育运动。
1982年，功夫片《少林寺》在中国大陆、港澳和海外地区同时上映。少林寺一时间红遍大江南北，游客纷至沓来，有的来习武，有的来观光。武术学校也应运而生。1985年成立了40多所武术学校，学员来自20个省、市、自治区。1986年，为了保证武术学校的办学质量，政府出面合并重组为5所学校。毕业生一般都加入了专业武术团体，或进入体育院校，有的成为武术教练。
少林武术因少林寺而得名;而少林寺则因武术而闻名。
2)八卦拳
八卦拳是以掌法变换为主要手法，搏击原则是攻防结合。战术强调:对手动，我先动;对手停，我先停;对手攻，我防守;对手筋疲力尽，我斗志昂扬;对手退，我前进;对手移动，我趁机行事;对手靠近，我进攻;对手不动，我动。这种战术强调侧面进攻，而不是正面进攻。
3)太极拳
太极拳中的“太极”得名于《易经》。太极指宇宙的本原。在盘古开天地之前，宇宙是一个整体。据说太极拳是周文王开创的。太极拳始于民间各种拳术形式，又通过一代又一代的发展完善，延续至今。
太极拳要求心、神、气、运统一，注意力集中，动作平稳，“心到手到”“动，则全身动;静，则全身静”。太极拳需要平心静气，光有力量还不行。力如轮，手如轴。步法呈弧线运动，凝神静气，自然放松。静则稳如泰山，动则行云流水。太极拳圆润、轻柔、和缓、平稳，既舒展又协调，以慢生柔，以匀求活，柔极生刚，刚柔相济，阴阳结合。这是所有太极拳的共同特征。太极拳流派很多，主要分为五派:陈式、杨式、孙式、吴式、武式。
4．武术的前景
过去，武术出于军事的目的和强身健体的需要。在赤手空拳的肉搏中，武术是古代战士们必不可少的技能和本领。现在的武术不是出于军事的需要，而更多地演变为一种有组织的、系统性的表演艺术。武术的健身功能和审美功能居主导地位。武术深受中国人的喜爱，无论男女老幼，都喜欢这项运动。如今，人们练武的目的是健身、防身、自律、娱乐和竞赛。
当前，武术逐步现代化，训练、竞技标准已经确立。现代武术继承了传统武术的搏击功能，已经成为融体育、审美、表演、竞技于一体的体育活动。越来越多的外国人士都来中国学习武术。为了让武术走向世界，中国郑州每年举行两次国际少林武术节。
受人们喜爱的现代武术包括长拳、南拳、太极拳、形意拳和八卦拳等。前两者是外功，注重力量、技能。后三者是内功，内修心神意气。
武术出现在奥运会上是在1936年的柏林，中国武术队首次亮相国际舞台。武术虽然世界闻名，但没有日本的柔道、韩国的跆拳道受人欢迎。要让中国武术列入奥运项目，中国还得向日本、韩国学习。1964年，日本成功地使柔道进入东京奥运会;韩国在1988年汉城奥运会之后12年，使韩国的跆拳道列入奥运赛事。
国际奥委会主席罗格在第10届全国运动会上对媒体说，国际奥委会原则上同意北京组委会举办武术锦标赛，但不直接列入2008年奥运会。因为国际奥委会一直在努力谋求优化奥运赛事，削减奥运项目。
中国体育界的权威人士认为，武术是中华五千年文明的一个重要组成部分，它的精神体现了“人文奥运”的宗旨。况且，在当前28个奥运项目中，只有2项源于东方，并得以发展。武术进入奥运会有助于东西文化的交流。
20世纪90年代，中国开始推动中国武术进入奥运会。2001年12月提出正式申请。但在2003年7月的布拉格会议上，国际奥委会迟迟没有做出决定。
在越南首都河内举行的第8届世界武术锦标赛期间，国际武术联合会确定了一套新的武术规则。这套规则更科学、客观。当时为了迎接2008北京奥运会，第9届世界武术锦标赛于2007年11月在北京举行。但是，武术走进奥运会仍需时日。我们期待着！
Exercises
Section A Thought-provoking questions
1．When did Chinese martial arts incorporate sophisticated aspects of ancient Chinese culture？
2．How did ancient Chinese philosophy influence martial arts？
3．What aspects of ancient Chinese aesthetics influenced Chinese martial arts？
4．What are the typical characteristics of Shaolin Wushu？
5．What is the core of the technique of the Eight-Trigram Boxing？
6．What are the main characteristics of Taiji Boxing？
Section B Decide whether the following statements are true or false
1．People know the precise origin of martial arts．
2．The imperial examination system of the Tang Dynasty was used to select martial arts champions．
3．Martial arts stress the importance of the physical being but neglect the importance of the mental being．
4．It can be inferred that martial arts also stress the balance between hardness and softness，voidness and solidness，notion and stillness，and negative and positive．
5．Chinese martial arts pay much attention to morals，benevolence，fidelity and sincerity．
6．Shaolin Boxing combines both external and internal，and“hard”and“soft”exercises．
7．Shaolin Boxing objects to“borrowing”force from the opponent．
8．In 1982，a film made Shaolin Monastery known to people all over the world．
9．It was said that Taiji Boxing was composed in the Zhou Dynasty．
10．Taiji Boxing is characterized by the unification of speed，strength and techniques．