Chapter 4 Ancient Chinese Education中国古代教育
1.Brief lntroduction
1)Beginning of Ancient Education
The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius and philosophers of the middle and late Zhou eras．Education in China has been an equalizing force from ancient times．It has become the means by which individuals from even the humblest backgrounds can rise to great heights．At the same time，it is also a powerful mechanism for implementing the ethical and social norms of Chinese society．
In the Spring and Autumn Period，private schools prevailed and many scholars of different schools of thought spread their teaching in this way．Confucius，the great educator，devoted all his life to the private school system and instructed most students．It is said that over 3，000 disciples followed him and 72 of them made outstanding achievements．Besides that，other schools such as Taoism were also taught widely and this led afterwards to“a hundred schools of thought”in the Warring States Period．
2)Development of Ancient Education
In 136 B．C．during the reign of Emperor Wudi(156 B．C．-87 B．C．)，the government introduced a system which was named“Taixue”or Great Academy．Usually the students were provided with a free diet and mainly studied the classical Confucian books．Students who were admitted to the“Taixue”were destined for careers in the civil service after they passed the internal exams and were competitively selected for various positions．Initially only fifty-five students were admitted to the Great Academy．By 8 B．C．，the Academy had an enrollment of three thousand students．During the Han Dynasty provincial schools were established and the Confucian tradition of education was spread across China．In the Han Dynasty there had been no system for testing a person's ability，and the most prevalent method was merely through observation．Officials would see who was intelligent and recommend individuals to their superior．The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian“Five Classics”and classes were taught by professors of the“Five Classics”who were known as Boshi．The basis of Chinese education did not change throughout the imperial history till the reign of the last Qing emperors．
In the Sui Dynasty，Imperial Examination as the main form of education began to be put into practice．It lasted more than 1，300 years until the last examination during the Qing Dynasty．It enjoyed a long and dominant position in the history of ancient Chinese education．
The Tang Dynasty adopted the personnel selection system and gradually refined it．The main subjects of the examinations were writing and study of classical books，which were the most popular，as well as mathematics，law，calligraphy，etc．Most of prime ministers during that feudal period were titled“Jinshi”，and were good at writing．The candidates almost always came from two sources．These were students of official schools and also intelligent people undergoing the exams in their local county，who were entitled“Juren”when they achieved the necessary qualifications to take the central government examinations held each spring．
The form and content of the exams varied from one another．The one testing knowledge of the classical books followed the method of filling in blanks．Usually one page of a book was chosen and several lines would be omitted．The candidates were required to fill the missing lines．Alternatively，they might be required to explain some of the lines in the book．Therefore the need to be able to recite the work was important．While the tests for“Jinshi”were not so easy，they required a talent for literature．
Candidates who passed the highest imperial examination would have a promising future as court officials．The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor;consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called“stepping into the dragon's door”．The most successful scholar was then granted the title of“Zhuangyuan”．
In the Song Dynasty subjects raised by government had been much less than that in the Tang Dynasty，but the examination for“Jinshi”was still fashionable．Most of the prime ministers of high rank also had to pass the exam in a subject which then was regarded as an exclusive subject of prime ministers．Meanwhile，regardless of form and content，the system underwent great innovation．
Firstly，the extension of matriculation was broadened．In the former dynasties like the Tang Dynasty，each year the“Jinshi”were no more than twenty to thirty in number but in the Song Dynasty，there were as many as hundreds of people passing the exams and even those who failed the exams many times could apply for tolerance of the emperor and so serve as officials with less important positions．
Secondly，the frequency of exams was limited to a fixed once every three years．The local tests came first in autumn and in the following spring the qualifying candidates would trudge to the capital for the higher imperial examination．
Thirdly，so far as content was concerned，while the earlier examinations laid much stress on the ancient classical texts，the great reformer Wang Anshi(1021-1086)advocated an innovation which was much more practical．He changed the blankfilling of verses into composition about the verse，giving free reign to the ability of the candidates．However，this was opposed by other grandees and did not last for long．
Finally，to prevent the practice of favoritism，examinees'names were closely covered on their papers which were then exchanged among different local examiners．This did indeed greatly reduce the incidence of cheating．
In the Song Dynasty，few governmental schools were erected，but it was the vogue for scholars to set up numerous private educational organizations—“Shuyuan”．The function of this kind of school was to cultivate talented people，to encourage a devotion to learning，as well as to spread culture．The four most reputed“Shuyuan”were named Bailudong Institute of Jiangxi，Songyang Institute and Yingtian Institute of Henan，and Yuelu Institute of Hunan．Scholars were invited to give lectures and students were provided with dormitories，desks and food while basically studying on their own．Subsequently，most of these institutes became places where students prepared for exams．
With the coming of the Ming Dynasty，the imperial examination system reached its period of full bloom．Great attention was given to the administrative procedures and the tests became more rigorous．The Ming government managed to found schools，and strengthened their function to be the only road by which people could take the exams．The provincial and metropolitan examiners tested only“eight-legged”(eight-part) essays．Candidates were required to write in a fixed style with a fixed word count—it had to be eight paragraphs，while imitating the tone of the classics．But this method neglected other forms and contents．Thus it was harmful as it stifled both creativity and imagination．
3)Decline of Ancient Education
Since the Qing Dynasty was dominated by the Manchu ethnic group，they gave their people priority over the Han people．Manchu people attending the imperial examination were not tested but required only to undertake some translation，yet the Han people were still formed a majority of the examinees．As the tight hold on affairs held by the Qing Dynasty became more and more unpopular，the education system also needed fresh ideas and input as it was a disservice to the country．A trend appeared towards the way in which the positions of court officials could be purchased and this sometimes even gave rise to unlawful pass to the degraded system．
It is interesting to note that Fan Jin，one of the characters depicted in the novel of The Scholars by Wu Jingzi，is quite a typical victim of the declining system．The hero Fan Jin took pains time and time again to achieve a pass in the provincial examination．Never once to give up，he was in his fifties when his efforts were finally rewarded．When he got the news that he had finally ranked on the list of successful candidates，he was in a delirium with great joy！
In contrast to western education，particularly in regard to the model of higher education in Medieval and Renaissance universities where students were encouraged to engage in disputation，traditional Chinese education consisted primarily of rote learning and memorization of the Classics．Candidates for the Imperial Examinations were required to memorize a vast amount of classical materials and were never required to demonstrate the ability to either theorize or challenge a particular premise．The purpose of the scholar class after all was:the creation of bureaucratic generalists familiar with an accepted ethical outlook and body of knowledge，not with the growth of knowledge or with academic specialization．
2.lmperial Examination System
1)The Imperial Examination System
The imperial examination system(also called Keju examination system)is commonly regarded as having started around the year 606 and was officially ended in 1905，for about 1，300 years．During this time，the exams became the central focus of a state-orchestrated system of high-stakes employment tests and test-driven education．Through these exams，Chinese emperors identified individuals who would initially serve as scholars in the imperial secretariat known as the Hanlin Academy．From these positions，the scholars might be promoted to serve as district magistrates，prefectural governors，provincial governors，national departmental ministers or even prime ministers or grand councilors．These exams were used to select individuals for highlevel，high-power positions;along with all the prestige，legal privileges and advantages，power and financial rewards for the candidate and the entire extended family，and ancestry that came with such positions．
In its most common and stable form，the exams，which included Confucianism，poetry，official documents and national politics，consisted of three progressive levels: local district exam，provincial exam，and palace exam．First，a candidate took the local district exams known as the Tongshi．These exams were given once every two years．Next level was the provincial exams called Xiangshi，which was given once every three years at the provincial capital．The third set of exams took place in the national capital and was given the spring after the provincial exams．The third level consisted of two steps:The“joint”exams called Huishi，to be followed by the palace exams，Dianshi．One can take these exams as many times as desired．The system was open to all males．However，in the early years during the Sui and Tang dynasties，to be eligible to take the exams，each examinee was required to identify an official who had agreed to serve as his mentor．This requirement was removed starting from the Song Dynasty．
Both the earliest district exams and the final palace exams were one-day long．The provincial exams and the joint exams in between，however，were very harsh experiences．Each of these 2 sets of exams was nine days and nine nights long．
2)Baguwen(Eight-Part Essay)
During the Ming and Qing dynasties，candidates sitting at imperial examinations were required to write essays in accordance with baguwen，a rigid eight-part form．
The eight-part essay was the form adopted for the explication of the Confucian classics，which formed the basis for the imperial examination system．Thus，the eightpart essay and imitations of the classical literary language of the earlier eras of Chinese cultural greatness became the major written genres of the time．There were no further breakthroughs in literary writing，except for a style of artistically heightened descriptions of everyday life experiences，called xiaopinwen(familiar essays)，which emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries．
3.Confucius
1)Educator as well as Philosopher
One of the most famous people in ancient China was a wise philosopher named Confucius．He was born Kong Qiu，styled Zhong Ni．Confucius was an educator as well as philosopher．He made many wise phrases and theories about law，life，and government．It's these thoughts and theories that teach other people lessons about moral principles and rules of life．He traveled about and instructed the small body of disciples that had gathered around him．He lectured to them on the ancient classics．His fame as a man of learning and character and his reverence for Chinese ideals and customs soon spread through the principality of Lu．His theories and principles were spread throughout China by his disciples，and soon many people learned from his wise sayings．
Confucius had，however，no opportunity to put his theories to a public test until，at the age of 51，he was appointed magistrate of Chung-tu，and the next year minister of crime of the state of Lu．His administration was successful;reforms were introduced;justice was fairly dispensed;crime was almost eliminated．So powerful did Lu become that the ruler of a neighboring state maneuvered to secure the minister's dismissal．Confucius left his office in 496 B．C．，traveling about and teaching，vainly hoping that some other prince would allow him to undertake measures of reform．In 484 B．C．，after a fruitless search for an ideal ruler，he returned for the last time to Lu．He died in Lu in 479 B．C．
Yet，when the philosopher died，people honored all of Confucius'work by building temples in every city in China to honor Confucius．Confucius'teachings and philosophy have been influencing China for nearly 2，500 years．It is called Confucianism．
2)Confucius and Education
A hallmark of Confucius'thought is his emphasis on education and study．He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues that the only real understanding of a subject comes from long and careful study．Study，for Confucius，means finding a good teacher and imitating his words and deeds．A good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients．While he sometimes warns against excessive reflection and meditation，Confucius'position appears to be a middle course between studying and reflecting on what one has learned．“He who learns but does not think is lost．He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger(Analects of Confucius)．”Confucius，himself，is credited by the tradition with having taught altogether 3，000 students，though only 72 are said to have truly mastered the arts he cherished most．Confucius is willing to teach anyone，whatever their social standing，as long as they are eager and tireless．He taught his students morality，proper speech，government，and the refined arts．While he also emphasizes the“Six Arts”—ritual，music，archery，chariot-riding，calligraphy，and computation—it is clear that he regards morality the most important subject．Confucius'pedagogical methods are striking．He never discourses at length on a subject．Instead he poses questions，cites passages from the classics，or uses apt analogies，and waits for his students to arrive at the right answers．“I only instruct the eager and enlighten the fervent．If I hold up one corner and a student cannot come back to me with the other three，I do not go on with the lesson(Analects of Confucius)．”
Confucius'goal is to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace，speak correctly，and demonstrate integrity in all things．His strong dislike of the sycophantic“petty men”whose clever talk and pretentious manner win them an audience，is reflected in numerous Analects of Confucius passages．Confucius finds himself in an age in which values are out of joint．Actions and behavior no longer correspond to the labels originally attached to them．“Rulers do not rule and subjects do not serve (Analects of Confucius)，”he observes．This means that words and titles no longer mean what they once did．Moral education is important to Confucius because it is the means by which one can rectify this situation and restore meaning to language and values to society．He believes that the most important lessons for obtaining such a moral education are to be found in the canonical Book of Songs，because many of its poems are both beautiful and good．Thus Confucius places the text first in his curriculum and frequently quotes and explains its lines of verse．For this reason，the Analects of Confucius is also an important source for understanding the role which Confucius'poetry and art play in the moral education of as well as in the reformation of society．
Word Bank
equalize(使某事物在大小、数量等)相等
enrollment入学，入伍，入会，登记，注册
curriculum课程
matriculation被录取入学
vogue风行，流行
rigorous严厉的，严格的
disservice危害，损害
delirium精神错乱
disputation争论，辩论
memorization记忆力
standardize使标准化
theorize使理论化
explicate详细解说和分析
dispense施与某物，分配某物
principality侯国
manoeuvere(AmE)maneuvre熟练巧妙地引导某人
hallmark特点，特征
disparage贬低，轻视
reflection沉思，考虑
meditation沉思，冥想
pedagogical教学法的
discourses长篇大论
pose引起，提出
fervent热情的，热忱的，激情的
sycophantic阿谀奉承的
pretentious自命不凡的，自负的
out of joint紊乱的
rectify纠正
internalize使……内化为
conceivable可以想到的
repletion饱足，充足
yardstick比较衡量的标准
参考译文
1.中国古代教育简介
1)中国古代教育开端
中国古代教育在中国文化中起着举足轻重的作用。中国古代教育最早可以追溯到周朝中、后期诸子百家的教育思想。古代中国的教育给人们提供了一个平等的发展机会，任何人即便出身贫寒都有可能步入仕途。与此同时，它也起着调节社会秩序、规范社会伦理道德的作用。
春秋时期，私人学堂(私塾)盛行，不同的学派通过学堂传播他们的思想主张。教育家孔子通过私塾，据说培养了3 000多名学生，其中72名取得了非凡成就。其他学派，如道家，也纷纷宣传自己的主张，出现了百家争鸣的局面。
2)中国古代教育发展
汉武帝(公元前156年—公元前87年)时代，兴“太学”或称“大学”。学子们免交伙食，主要研读经书。通过考试的学生，金榜题名之后，前途无量，仕途亨通。起初，太学仅招收55人，到公元前8年，已经招收3 000人。汉朝开始建立地方学校，学校遍及全国，儒家教育思想广为传播。汉朝尚没有严格意义上的考试制度，只是通过观察，来选贤任能。有才识的人由各级官员层层推荐。学校传授的课程为“四书五经”。由熟谙“四书五经”的学者(或称“博士”)传授。这种传统一直延续到晚清。
隋朝开始了科举考试，并一直延续到清朝，约1 300年，在古代中国教育中占主导地位。
唐朝继承、完善了科举取士的制度。考试内容包括写作、经书、数学、法律和书法等。那时候的许多宰相是“进士”出身，都能写一手好文章。这些考生要么出自官府学校，要么通过了地方严格的筛选、成为有资格参加政府每年春天举行的考试的“举人”。
科举考试的形式和内容不尽相同。题目有填空或默写。通常从经书上选取某页内容，然后空上几行，要求应试者填上。或者，也可能要求考生解释诗句。因此，熟读经书至关重要。考“进士”并非易事，那要求很高的文学天赋。
通过科举考试的人前程无量，仕途通达。“龙”是权力的象征，因此，人们把考科举称为“跳龙门”。考得最好的就是“状元”。
宋朝的教育历经很大的变革。宋朝的科举考试中官府主持的科目比唐朝时的少，但考“进士”依然很流行，并且身居高位的大臣都必须通过相关科目的考试。考试体制在形式和内容上都有很大变革。
变革之一是招生规模扩大。唐朝每年的“进士”不到20或30人，但在宋朝每年却有数百人通过考试。甚至对于那些多次考试但屡考不中的人，皇帝也会给他们提供一些次要的岗位。
第二个变革是考试的频率确定为每3年一次。地方考试定在秋季，通过地方考试的人次年春天到都城参加考试。
第三个变革是考试内容。以前的考试强调经书，改革家王安石(1021年—1086年)强调考试要切合实际。他把填诗、默诗变成作诗、作文。但这种主张受到了贵族阶层的批评，没有持续多久。
最后，为了体现公平竞争，应试者的姓名被封住，试卷在不同地区交换阅卷，减少了舞弊现象。
宋朝官府的学校不多，但书院(即早期的私人学校或组织)却很盛行。书院的目的就在于培养人才，传播文化，弘扬学术。宋朝四大书院是江西省的“白鹿洞书院”、河南省的“嵩阳书院”和“应天书院”、湖南省的“岳麓书院”。书院邀请知名学者讲学，并为学生提供膳食。这样，书院就成了学生们备考的地方。
明朝的科举考试达到了巅峰。考试程序、过程更加严格。明朝政府建立学校，加强学校的功能，让其成为考生参加科举考试的必由之路。考试内容是八股文:固定的文体、固定的字数、固定的八个部分。这种方法忽视了别的形式和内容，限制了人们的创造性和想象力，是十分有害的。
3)中国古代教育衰退
清朝是满族统治，汉人地位低。满族人参加科举考试只需要做些翻译，参加科举考试的大部分是汉人。清政府的高压统治引起了当时人们的不满情绪，旧的教育制度需要注入新的思想和观念。买官卖官的倾向日益蔓延，破坏了考试的公平竞争。
吴敬梓的小说《儒林外史》所描写的主人公就是这种腐朽考试制度的牺牲品。范进屡考不中，考到五十多岁才得到回报。当他得知最后通过了省试，欣喜若狂，结果却精神错乱，疯疯癫癫。
与西方教育尤其是中世纪和文艺复兴时期的高等教育模式相比，中、西方教育模式迥然不同。西方教育重辩论，中国教育重背诵(“四书五经”)。科举考试需要背诵大量的经典著作，目的是培养一批封建官僚统治者，而不在于促进知识的更新和学术的进步。
2.科举制
1)科举制的实施
一般认为科举制大约开始于606年，结束于1905年，持续近1 300年。在此期间，科举考试变成了一种由国家精心安排、备受人注目的用人选拔制度。通过科举考试，皇帝能选拔一批翰林院学者、人才，然后择优者出任地方或中央的各级官员，如地方治安官、县官、大臣、皇帝顾问等。他们不仅享有特权、荣耀和地位，而且常常是“一人得道，鸡犬升天”。
科举考试的形式和内容都很僵化，一成不变，包括儒家思想、古代诗歌、官方文献和国家政治等。它分三个层次:地方考、省考和宫廷考。考生首先参加地方考即“童试”，每两年一次;然后是省考即“乡试”，每三年一次;最后是宫廷考，包括会试和殿试。只要考生愿意，他们可以参加多次考试。只有男性才能参加科举考试。在隋唐早期，每一个应试的考生必须有一位官员作为顾问提供指导。这个要求在宋朝就废止了。
最初的地方考试和最后的宫廷考试都是一整天。然而，省考和会试非常漫长，两种考试都需9天9夜。
2)八股文
在明清时期，参加科举的考生必须考“八股文”。
“八股文”有严格的格式要求，考试内容为儒家经典。因此，“八股文”就构成了那个时代语言文学尤其是文学创作的一个主要特征，并且一直没有什么突破，直到15和16世纪着重描写日常生活的小品文的出现。
3.孔子
1)教育家和哲学家
中国古代最著名的人物之一就是孔子，名丘，字仲尼。孔子既是教育家又是哲学家。他发表了很多关于法律、生活和政治的论断，他的思想理论规范影响着人们的伦理、道德、法律和生活等方方面面。他周游列国，广收门徒，传播他的学说主张，他博学多识、君子品格的声誉迅速传遍鲁国。他的学术理论被他的门徒传遍中国。
但是，直到51岁，孔子才得以把他的理论付诸实践。那年他被任命为中都的一个地方官，第二年成为主管鲁国法律治安的官员。他推行改革，公平执政，成绩显赫，犯罪率明显下降。他的改革非常成功，但又危及邻国，邻国的君主施计让他被免职。公元前496年，他放弃仕途，四处讲学，期待着有朝一日，能继续推行他的改革理想。公元前484年，在寻求理想君主的希望破灭后，孔子回到鲁国，于公元前479年患病不愈而卒。
孔子去世后，为了纪念他的丰功伟绩，人们到处修建孔庙。他的哲学与教育思想影响了中国近2 500年。他的学说主张被称为“儒家思想”。
2)孔子与教育
孔子思想的特征之一是他十分强调教育与学习。他蔑视那些自以为是天才的人，主张真正了解事物要靠长期认真的学习。对孔子而言，学习意味着找一位好老师，然后学习他的言和行。老师就是通晓事理、经验丰富的长者。在思与学的关系上，他反对只思考不学习，也反对只学习不思考。他认为:“学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆。”据说孔子一生共有3 000弟子，但其中只有72人真正领会孔子的教诲。孔子教学生，不考虑学生的社会地位，只要他们有热情、不倦怠，孔子都愿意教。孔子教授学生礼仪、道德、言行、政治和艺术等。尽管孔子强调“礼、乐、射、御、书、数”等“六艺”，但他认为道德是最为重要的。孔子很讲究教学方法。他不擅长长篇大论地探讨一个问题，而是提出问题，或引经据典，或巧妙使用类比，启发学生自己得出结论。他认为“不愤不启，不悱不发。举一隅不以三隅反，则不复也。”(《论语·述而》)
孔子培养的是言谈举止高雅得体、诚实可信的君子。他不喜欢自命不凡、阿谀奉承的“小人”，这一点在《论语》中的很多部分有所体现。孔子处在一个百家争鸣的时代，社会价值、行为准则有待规范。所以，他提出:“其身正，不令而行;其身不正，虽令不从。”(《论语·子路》)对孔子来说，道德教育最为重要，因为它可以改变风气、规范社会。他认为道德教育的好教材是《诗经》。在教学中，孔子把《诗经》放在首位，并常常引用其中的诗句。因此，《论语》也是人们理解孔子的诗歌和艺术在道德教育和社会改革方面所起作用的重要途径。
Exercises
Section A Thought-provoking questions
1．Has education in China been an equalizing force from ancient times？
2．What did the imperial exams include？How many levels did they consist of and what were they？
3．As an educator and philosopher，how did Confucius influence Chinese people？
4．What are“Six Arts”？
5．What did Confucius regard as the most important subject？
Section B Decide whether the following statements are true or false
1．All of the historical education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius．
2．There is a definite connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system．
3．In contrast to western education，traditional Chinese education encouraged students to engage in disputation．
4．We can infer that the scholars could be promoted to serve as officials by the imperial examinations．
5．The imperial exam system was opened to both men and women．
6．Confucius'thoughts and theories teach other people lessons about moral，principles and rules of life．
7．Confucius'teachings and philosophy have a great impact on China．
8．Confucius stresses the importance of study，and the attitude to study．
9．Confucius'pedagogical methods are striking because he discourses at length on a subject．
10．Confucius finds himself in an ideal age．