段落的构成（Paragraph Structure）
段落是文章结构的基本单位，写好段落是写好文章的基础。段落是围绕一个观点、一个中心思想而展开的若干个句子。这些句子之间有一定的逻辑关系，并按照英语的表达习惯有效地连接起来。段落的结构大致是由三部分组成的，它们是主题句（topic sentence）、扩展句（developing sentences）和结论句（concluding sentence）。
例1：
We planned a surprise party for Lucy recently.She never had a birthday party and she was twenty-one years old.First，we carefully made a guest list.We included many of her friends from school，a few of her other friends from church，and all of her others and sisters.Second，we planned a suitable menu.We needed some refreshing drinks and food.We were going to serve fruit punch and coffee.We also wanted chicken sandwiches，a birthday cake with twenty-one candles，and ice cream.Third，we planned entertainment.A boy did magic tricks skillfully.Another boy played the guitar well.We all liked group singing.We had a lot of records and a record player.Everyone helped.The party became a secret community project.
当我们阅读这个段落时，会发现整个段落是围绕着一个主题、一件事情谈论的。在这个段落里，主题句是第一句“We planned a surprise party for Lucy recently.”，然后后面的句子，特别是中间部分的句子，如“First，we carefully made a guest list.We included many of her friends from school，a few of her other friends from church，and all of her others and sisters.Second，we planned a suitable menu.We needed some refreshing drinks and food.We were going to serve fruit punch and coffee.We also wanted chicken sandwiches，a birthday cake with twenty-one candles，and ice cream.Third，we planned entertainment.A boy did magic tricks skillfully.Another boy played the guitar well.We all liked group singing.We had a lot of records and a record player.”，都是围绕着“surprise party”来进行说明的。最后结论句为“The party became a secret community project.”。
例2：
Electric cars are the future in the auto industry.As climate change gets worse，governments are going to s start limiting the number of gasoline cars being built.The cost of gas will continue to rise，which will make it harder for people to afford to run gas powered cars.As battery technology improves，electric cars will be able to travel further on a charge and cost less to buy.Eventually most gas powered cars will be replaced by electric cars.[1]
这个段落同样是围绕一个主题展开论述的，即电动车是汽车行业的未来。中间部分说明理由，最后一句是结论句，回扣主题。
例3：
My brother Michael’s bedroom shows his big interest in fantasy and science fiction.Glow-in-the dark stars are pasted on the ceiling where，at night，they glow in the dark.Other stars can be seen covering the ceiling during the day，giving the appearance of a starry sky.Movie posters line the walls.There is a poster of The Matrix in a shiny frame.Below the posters are two black steel bookcases crowded with old books.old videos like Raiders of the Lost Ark and Alien are also stacked on the bookshelves.Anyone entering my brothers room knows at once that Michael likes to escape fantastic places.
这个描述性的段落也是围绕着一个中心思想“Michael’s bedroom shows his big interest in fantasy and science fiction.”展开的。
以上三个段落，无论是记叙、描述还是说明、论说，都是不离开段落中心思想的，段落的展开都富有逻辑性，段落的结尾也自然而然地回到段落的主题。段落的结构是标准的样式，即“主题句+支持句+结论句”。
一、主题句（Topic Sentence）
主题句是表达段落中心思想的句子。它是一个完整的句子，有主语、谓语，通常还有补语。不完整的句子是不做主题句的。
例：
——The popularity of the cell phones among the students.（fragment）
这句话没有谓语动词，它不是一个完整的句子。
改为：The cell phones are popular among the students for three reasons.（complete sentence）
主题句的特点如下：主题句必须是一个完整的句子；主题句一定是主题（topic）+主题思想（controlling idea）。
例：
——Travel is beneficial to us in at least three ways.
“travel”是主题，主题思想是 “beneficial to us in at least three ways”。
例：
——Education is vital to the development of an individual.
“education” 是主题，主题思想是“vital to the development of an individual”。
例：
——There are several advantages to growing up in a big city.
“growing up in a big city” 是主题，主题思想是 “several advantages”。
（一）主题句的位置
1.主题句可以出现在段落的任何位置
但通常情况下，主题句出现在段落的第一句，即段首。这样便于作者在以后的句子中展开，也给读者一个清晰的印象，也便于读者立马抓住作者的要义。
例：
It is no wonder，I have come to see，that the United States，sometimes finds difficult to remain united.Each state functions as a nation in itself；each citizen may believe that his state is the best in the country and therefore his first loyalty，unexpressed or proclaimed，is to his state.We are nevertheless a nation and as a nation we take our place in the world of nations.We are a family of states，and like brothers and sisters we quarrel among ourselves，but in times of peril we present a solid front.
我发现，美国各州难以合在一起，这一点也不奇怪。各州都像个国家在运作，每个公民都相信自己的州是国内最好的，因此，无论是否明说，他首先效忠本州。然而，我们是一个国家，是立足于世界之林的一个国家，我们是由各州组成的一个家庭。就像兄弟姐妹，我们有吵有闹，但是灾难临头时，我们团结一致。
2.主题句在段落的第二句
例：
An assorted people，nevertheless，are these people of California！All parts of the world have contributed to the variety.The Chinese are，for the most part，the descendants of the South Chinese Laborers who …
然而，这些加利福尼亚人是各种各样的人！世界各地都为这种多样性做出了贡献。中国人在很大程度上是南方华工的后裔，他们……
3.主题句在段落的最后一句
例：
School children used to know the story of how Abraham Lincoln walked five miles to return a penny he’d overcharged a customer.It’s the kind of story we think of as myth.But in the case of Lincoln，the story is true...unlike the story of George Washington and the cherry tree.Washington’s first biographer invented the tale of little George saying to his father，“I cannot tell a lie.I did it with my ax.” What is important in both stories，however，is that honesty was seen as an important part of the American character.
学校的孩子们过去都知道亚伯拉罕·林肯是如何走了五英里才退还他向一位顾客多收的一分钱的故事。这是一个我们认为是神话的故事。但林肯的故事是真实的……不像乔治·华盛顿和樱桃树的故事。华盛顿的第一位传记作家虚构了一个故事，小乔治对他的父亲说：“我不能说谎，我是用斧头砍的。”然而重要的是，这两个故事都体现了，诚实被视为美国人性格的重要组成部分。
段落主题句出现在句尾，往往被称为高潮主题句（climactic topic sentence）。
例：
People do it everyday.They log on to their favorite website and browse for hours，checking out bargains.They dump every possible wish into their shopping carts，knowing they can cast each one aside before they finalize their purchases.On the way，they may enter a sweepstakes in the hopes of winning a trip to Cabo San Lucas，or maybe even a new SUV.And then，when they have decided on their purchases，they enter private information without giving it a thought.With a keystroke，they release their personal data into what may or may not be a secure zone.Despite what much of the public believes，internet shopping is not safe.
人们每天都这样做。他们登录自己喜欢的网站，浏览几个小时，查看特价商品。他们把每一个可能的愿望都扔进购物车，知道自己可以在完成购物之前把每一个愿望都扔掉。在途中，他们可能会参加抽奖活动，希望赢得圣卢卡斯角之旅，甚至可能赢得一辆新的SUV。然后，当他们决定购买时，他们会不假思索地输入私人信息。通过按键，他们可以将个人数据释放到一个安全区域或者不安全区域。不管大多数人这么认为，网上购物并不安全。
最后一句是段落的点睛之笔。
4.主题句仅仅隐含在段落中
例：
On this night，I was sitting on the couch with my friends，watching a movie and feeling normal when suddenly，I felt as if I needed to jump out of my skin.Racing thoughts，horrible images and illusions crept through my mind.I thought I was seeing the devil，and I repeatedly asked my friends if I was dead.On top of all this，I felt as if I was having a heart attack.Somehow，I managed to pick up the telephone and call my mom in the middle of the night，telling her to come get me.She did，pulling me out of my apartment the next morning.
那天夜晚，我正和几个朋友坐在长沙发上看电影，起初还感觉正常，可是突然我觉得仿佛想要从自己的躯壳里蹦出来似的，各种各样的念头、恐怖无比的景象和扑朔离迷的幻影在脑海里闪烁。当时我觉得我撞见了魔鬼。我不停地问朋友们我是不是已经死了。在发作的高峰，我感觉我仿佛像心脏病发作了一般。这时，我总算拿起了电话，拨通了我妈妈的号码，叫她赶紧来接我。第二天一早她来了，把我从公寓里拽了出来。
这一段落没有主题句，但是从这一大段的描述中我们可知它的中心意思是毒品在她身上的反应，给她带来的痛苦。
例：
College and university sports team have nicknames.Most are common，such as the Bears，Lions，and Tigers.However，some are unusual.For instance，the University of California at Irvine is nicknamed “Anteaters”.The University of Washburn’s sports team are called “Thunderducks”.And perhaps the strangest of all belongs to the University of California at Santa Cruz.Their nickname is the “Banana Slugs”.[2]
大学运动队都有自己的绰号，大多数是常见的绰号，如熊、狮子和老虎。然而，有些绰号是不寻常的。例如，加州大学欧文分校的绰号是“食蚁兽”；沃什本大学的运动队被称为“雷鸭队”；也许最奇怪的是位于圣克鲁斯的加利福尼亚大学的绰号，它是“香蕉鼻涕虫”。
在这个段落里，我们可以概括出它隐含的主题句是“Some College and University sport teams have unusual College nicknames.”。
隐含式的主题句对初学写作的人来说不提倡，应多学主题句在句首的方法。
（二）写好主题句的方法
主题句是关于段落谈论的内容，它表明作者的观点、立场和态度。它也同样告诉了读者接下来的段落是怎样发展的。记住写好主题句必须包括作者的观点或者说主题
思想。
1.注意主题句不宜写得太概括，这样不容易在下面的句子中展开
例：
Let me talk about the life in China for you today.
因此写主题句要具体，要具体到作者可以展开。但也不要太具体，如：“Christmas trees are either cedars or firs.”，这种“要么……要么……”的句式不宜在主题句中运用。
2.不要把事实作为主题句
例：
All dogs need food.
Students often do some running in the morning.
写主题句一定要有作者的观点。
3.主题句要能够吸引作者的吸引力
写作的目的之一是要分享，世上文章很多，如何抓住读者的吸引力，让读者与你分享你的大作就显得非常重要。
Exercise
1.Write a topic sentence based on each topic in the following.
（1）Travelling
（2）University life
（3）Living in big cities
（4）Nuclear energy
（5）TV
（6）Playing a game
（7）Friends
（8）School activities
（9）Growing up in a large family
（10）Family
2.Try to find the topic sentence in the following paragraph.
（1）Albert Einstein was more than just curious though.He had the patience and determination that kept him at things longer than most others.Other children would build houses of cards up to 4 stories tall before the cards would lose balance and the whole structure would come falling down.Maja watched in wonder as her brother Albert methodically built his card buildings to 14 stories.Later he would say，“It’s not that I’m so smart.It’s just that I stay with problems longer.”
（2）Religion explores human life，as well as the natural and supernatural realms of existence.Buddhism and Christianity are the most obvious examples.On life，one of the Ten Commandments urges you to “honor thy father and mother”，and one of the Buddhist scriptures says that you can never pay back the debt you own your parents.On nature，Jesus compared the Kingdom of Heaven to a grain of mustard seed，which will grow and become a big tree，while Buddhist teachings claim that the spirit of the Buddha permeates green bamboo trees and yellow flowers.In a supernatural vein，the Bible insists that Christ was born of a virgin，and Buddhists believe that the Buddha was born from his mother’s right side below the ribs.Similarly，Christ would rise from the dead after being crucified，and the Buddha would not die after being dismembered.
（3）Students，for instance，will dash from the library to a quick lunch.Workers who commute between cities find that fast food allows them to overcome the problem of eating whilst traveling.When socializing，many people enjoy a visit to a restaurant with friends.Foreign restaurants are a particular delight：experience of foreign food is a type of knowledge.Moreover，“amateur” cooking seldom tastes as rich as food cooked by the experts.It might even be said that eating out，and quick service food，are necessary to the fast pace of modern life.Macdonald’s is a huge international company，and is as rich as some small，developing countries.
（4）When a camera flash is used in a low-light environment，the subject’s eyes may appear red in the finished photograph.What is known as “red-eye” is the result of light from the flash reflecting off the pupils of the eyes.The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the red-eye reduction feature found on many SLR cameras.This feature activates a lamp which shines a small light directly into the subject’s eyes.When this happens，the diameter of the pupil is reduced，thus tightening the opening in the iris.Since a smaller pupil means a smaller host for the reflection，the chances of red-eye occurring are greatly reduced.
3.Write the topic sentence according to the paragraph.
（1）_______________.One day，as I find her waiting outside a museum，she is just taking a spare tire out of the trunk of the taxi.One of the bald tires had finally gone flat，and she was going to change it herself.Several curious people gather around her and she receives offers of help——but no，she wants no part of that.In her efficient，deliberate manner，she changes the tire，and having done so，washes her hands with bottled water，gets in the taxi and asks “Where to now？”
（2）_______________.For instance，his theories of relativity revolutionized science and unseated the laws of Newton that were believed to be a complete description of nature for hundreds of years.Yet when pressed for an example that people could relate to，he came up with this：“Put your hand on a hot stove for a minute and it seems like an hour.Sit with a pretty girl for an hour and it seems like a minute.THAT’s relativity.
（3）Newton’s was unquestionably a mind of the very highest order，and yet，when asked by what means he had worked out his extraordinary discoveries，he modestly answered，“By always thinking unto them.” At another time he thus expressed his method of study：“I keep the subject continually before me，and wait till the first dawnings open slowly by little and little into a full and clear light.”
（4）________，the urban automobile kills street life，damages the social fabric of communities，isolates people，endangers other street users，spoils the city’s beauty，upsets people with its noise，causes air pollution，wastes energy and natural resources，and impoverishes nations.
二、支持句（Supporting Sentences）
（一）支持句的作用
支持句在段落中是用来支持该段落主题句的，是围绕主题句进行具体论证的，可以举例说明，也可以旁征博引，使该段落的主题站得住脚，以理服人。支持句是由多个句子构成的，每一个句子都是有逻辑关系的。支持句就在主题句的后面，它在段落中占有最大的部分，也称为段落的主体部分（the body of the paragraph）。
例：
I like paper reading more than online reading for several reasons.Firstly I cherish the moment keeping company with the book.When I bury my head into the book，the special fragrance of the book slips through my fingers，into my nose，then into my brain.How marvelous the feeling is！（1）Secondly，I can take various notes on the book as long as I want to，which is not that easy to do when reading online.When I have finished reading the book，what I harvest will be not only the knowledge and idea the book conveys，but also my systematic thinking about the book，which can be vividly embodied by my notes on the book.（2） Thirdly，paper reading won’t be distracted easily by irrelevant information which often emerges in online reading.（3）Based on the above three points，I prefer paper reading to online reading.
在这个段落里，主题句是第一句，紧接着是支持句，（1）、 （2） and （3） 说明主题句。[3]
例：
Social practice has been more and more popular in universities and colleges.It has many advantages.Firstly，social practice can offer students a chance to contact society and meet different kinds of people.In this way students can gain some valuable social experience，which will be useful to their future career.Secondly，students can apply what they have learnt in class to practical work，thus knowing themselves clearly.Thirdly，social practice can ring them sone financial reward and make them more independent of their family.
这个段落主题是谈论社会实践对大学的学生有许多好处。这些好处是什么，对学生的益处有哪些。支持句也是三个。
（二）支持句的写法
支持句的写法是多样的，它的展开与发展有平行型、层递型、顺序型、转折型等。“段落的发展”一节有专门论述，在此不作过多论述。
三、结论句（Concluding Sentence）
结论句是在段落的结尾处，通常是最后一句话。它往往用于总结全文、重申主题。
例：
There are some useful ways to get the grade you want in this class.Before the class，you must preview the lessons you will listen to tomorrow.Previewing is a perfect learning habit to help you improve your learning efficiency.After previewing，you can know what the teachers will teach the next day.Then you can listen to your teachers with the questions you found the day before.In the class，you have to listen to our teacher carefully.Your teachers are professional and dedicated，and they can solve all of your problems about your studies.Listening carefully can also help you to get more information or details about tests.You can also confirm the knowledge you are not sure about，and it is an important way to improve your grade.Practicing more after class is also an important part.More practice for grammar or writing can help you to memorize.Don’t be shy——speak more English，and you will improve our speaking and listening.The more Exercise you do，the higher grade you will get.If you want to get the grade you want to in this class，do these things before，in，and after class.
在这个段落里，主题句是谈论学生获得高分的三个方法，支持句说明怎样帮助学生取得好成绩。最后结论句总结了全文，即“If you want to get the grade you want to in this class，do these things before，in，and after class.”。
写结论句的方法有：
●重复主题句中的关键词或短语，这种重复可以是同义词、近义词，或者是释义主题句中的词语。
例1
Topic sentence：
There are several ways people can conserve natural resources.
concluding sentence：
By practicing these simple guidelines，we can save our natural resources.
Repeating a key word.
“conserve→save” 这两个是同一个意思。
例2
Topic sentence：
Everywhere man is altering the balance of nature.
Concluding sentence：
In brief，he has done more in five thousand years to alter the biological aspect of the planet that has nature in five million.
rephrasing：
“Altering the balance of nature→to alter the biological aspect of the planet”这是释义。
●结论句的词语通常是thus、 so、 therefore、 in brief、 hence、in a netshell和to sum up，这些词语往往在结论句的开头使用。
例1
Topic sentence：
Of all the inventions that have ever been made in the world so far，the wheel is，perhaps the most important.
Concluding sentence：
Therefore，small and insignificant as it seems，the wheel weighs heavily in human history and in the development of our civilization.
例2
Topic sentence：
Knowledge is life’s most precious asset.
Concluding sentence：
So we must make great effort to obtain knowledge.
例3
Topic sentence：
Is science beneficial to human beings？
Concluding sentence：
In short，we can say science to human beings is like food to our bodies.
例4
Topic sentence：
Reading newspapers can also be a waste of time.
Concluding sentence：
In a word，make the best use of newspapers but don’t be drowned by them.
结论性词语还有：In conclusion，Lastly，Finally，In general，Therefore，Clearly，Overall。
结论句的写法如下：
●总结，概述（summarize）
总结段落内容，不要再引出新的观点。
●句子要简洁（make your sentence short and concise）
用几个词来概括这一段的主旨，不要失去段落中的意义。
●号召行动、建议
最后一句话可以呼吁读者采取行动，运用情绪化和事实化的论点，唤起读者的期望和反应。
●用引语（using quotations）
为了给读者留下印象，可以在结论中引用名人名言、谚语等。
Exercise
1.Read the following paragraphs.Then choose the best concluding sentence for it.
Passage 1
There are two reasons I love big cities.First of all，big cities are alive 24/7.Going shopping，seeing a movie，exercising at a gym，getting something to eat，or going roller skating at any time of the day or night are things you can do in big cities.Secondly，I like the anonymity in big cities.You can be completely invisible in big cities.No one watches your daily comings and goings.Your neighbors will not bother you as long as you don’t bother them.You can stay home all day or stay out all night，and no one cares.[4]
Answer：
a.In conclusion，I love big cities because you can be independent.
b.In brief，big cities attract me because there are so many things to do.
c.In short，I like big cities because of their energy and anonymity.
Passage 2
When we first moved to the property，we did some remodeling and stayed in our motor home.We were confronted with real challenges at the time.The power kept going out，the main water line to the house broke，the plumbing backed up into the front yard and the generator died.
Answer：
a.We have really hard work after living in the property for the first time.
b.In short，I wanted to move away when facing the difficulties.
c.Challenges can be conquered at once when we first moved in.
Passage 3
Over-consumption is even more clearly demonstrated by our electricity usage.We have a digital readout of how many volts of DC power we have stored in our batteries at any given time.If you turn on a light or the TV，the number goes down.In order to protect the batteries，the system is set up to shut the inverter off if the volts get too low.Then the power goes out.When we first moved in，we lost power almost daily.After this happens a few times，it becomes clear very quickly just how often you waste electricity：Everything from lights and ceiling fans to computers and radios were left on when they were not in use.The cell phone chargers were plugged in even when they weren’t charging anything.All of this uses unnecessary power.
Answer：
a.We are steadily learning to be more diligent with our power usage.
b.We lack of power usage after moving into the property.
c.We cherish what our life used to be.
Passage 4.
As I was growing up，my father and I sometimes disagreed about how I should spend my time.He began telling me，“If you get yourself into it，you’ll have to get yourself out.” But I learned what it meant to be responsible for the consequences of my decisions only after I went to a weekend party when I should have studied for a chemistry exam.I needed a good grade on the exam to stay in the nursing program，and the consequences of my decision to go to the party were clear when I got my exam back with a notice that I was on academic probation.I spent two semesters of almost steady studying before I was back in good standing.Now，whenever I have a difficult decision to make，I remind myself，“If you get yourself into it，you’ll have to get yourself out.”
Answer：
a.You can control yourself in doing things.
b.I’ve learned that making a decision means taking the responsibility for its consequences.
c.Consequences are very important for you to take action.
Passage 5
Crackers and hackers almost refer to the same person.However，there are some differences in the way that they do their work.While hackers act in a way that is within the legal frameworks，crackers are keen on breaking the existing laws.They use their knowledge and skills to breach the security of a computer system and network.Crackers gain access o people’s or organizations’private data and do some level of damage.The damages caused by crackers can vary.The most common ones include stealing credit card information，stealing personal details and information which they will sell，destroying recrypting important files，making the system inaccessible to other people among many other malicious activities.
Answer：
a.Crackers are more clever than hackers.
b.Cracking is a criminal activity.
c.From this passage，we can know a hacker aims at doing good to the society while a cracker has ill intentions.
2.Write the concluding sentence according to the passage.
Passage 1
I have received a lot of noes in my life.In elementary school，I wasn’t selected for the safety patrol team.In middle school，I was told I couldn’t take advanced math，even though my grades were excellent.At university，I was advised that I shouldn’t pursue degrees in both mathematics and anthropology.Over and over，I was informed that no，nei，la，nyet，I would not get the fellowship，opportunity，or experience I desired.Later，when I entered the professional world，I applied for jobs was told no.As a freelance writer，I pitched stories to editors and was told no.I proposed ideas for collaboration，consultation，and even conversation，and was told no.___________________.
Passage 2
When travelling abroad for work or pleasure，you need to bear in mind the different perspectives related to consuming alcohol before you actually clink your glass and gulp down a sip.In Australia，when a man drinks，he has to have company.It is considered ethical to invite a few friends or truck load of people to drink with you in this part of the world.You obviously cannot pay for your drink alone，you have to abide by doing the rounds or shouts as they call them.In Belgium，people always wait for the host to offer a toast before the dig into their drink.While there are no reservations as to who makes the toast，it is considered polite to stand for the same.The Flemish（主要居住在比利时南部和北部的比利时人）raise their glasses at the completion of the drink.In China，people like their glasses filled to the brim，and strictly adhere to filling the glasses according to seniority.Don’t take the literal meaning of emptying your drink in one shot，for you will be expected to do the same for every drink that follows.___________________.
Passage 3
Shopping-bag ladies do not drink.They do not huddle together for warmth and companionship like burns.They do not seem to like one another very much.Neither are they too keen on conventional people.Urban hermits，one sociologist has called them.They will spend their days and nights in the same neighbourhood for months on end，then disappear as inexplicably as they came.They know the hours when restaurants put their leftovers in the garbage cans where they search for food.And local residents，seeing the same bag lady on the same corner every day，will slip her some change as they pass.
Passage 4
One is Vicky.My first doctoral student，Vicky was an energetic student who is labored at her dissertation on a little-known 14th century poet.She wrote articles and sent them off to learned journals.She did it all herself，with an occasional nudge from me.But I was there when she finished her dissertation，learned that her articles were accepted，got a job and won a fellowship to Harvard working on a book developing ideas she’d first had as my student.___________________.
Passage 5
Our neighborhood has been greatly changed.When I last visited there，about half the homes had been torn down to make way for a superhighway.The remaining buildings were plastered with billboards and surrounded by traffic signs and litter.___________________.
Passage6
There are several careers I could consider that could fit my personality.One is a career as an electronics engineer.An electronics engineer’s work is to design，develop，test，and supervise the manufacturing of electrical and electronics equipment.This includes aircraft，automobiles，electric power generation，motors，communication equipment，and computer hardware.Another possibility is the job of an aerospace engineer.An aerospace engineer works to design，develop，and test systems related to aircraft （both military and commercial） and space exploration.They typically specialize in one area of expertise such as propulsion or guidance and control systems.A third career option of interest to me is that of graphics designer.Graphics designers design art and copy layouts for visual media.This includes books，magazines，advertisements，and web pages.___________________.