段落的发展（Paragraph Development）

第二节 段落的发展（Paragraph Development）

段落的发展指围绕段落的主题句解释、论证、说明或引申。段落发展得好可以让读者更加清晰地懂得文章的主旨、作者的意图。常用的段落发展有10种方法，分别是描述法、定义法、例证法、划分与分类法、比较与对比法、因果法、论证法、图表数据法、引证法和综合法。

一、描述法（Description）

（一）事物描述（Description of an Object or Event）

事物描述是对事物和过程或程序的描写，也可以是对人物、场景、气氛等的描述。但无论是主观描述还是客观描述，都不能没有思想、没有主题、没有目的。对于描述，一定要抓住被描述事物的特征，重点突出地描写，以便给读者留下印象，而不会让读者理不出头绪来。

例1：

The University of Colorado Boulder is located at the foot of the Rocky Mountains，at an altitude of 5，400 feet.The Flatiron，a range of towering rock formations，is visible from nearly everywhere on campus.The climate is temperate，with generally pleasant days and cool evenings.On average，the area enjoys about 340 sunny or partly sunny days each year.The main campus covers 600 acres and includes about 200 buildings constructed of rough-cut Colorado sandstone with red tile roofs.^[5]

此段从三个方面描述科罗拉多大学：地理位置、气候和校园的面积。每一个方面的描写都非常细致，并突出了该大学的特点。在地理位置上，该大学地处洛基山脚下，从校园的任何地方都可以看到洛基山，由此从视觉的角度点出该大学四面环山，学生一睁眼就是山景。在气候方面，虽然大学地处山脚但并不寒冷：这里的气候温和，白天怡人，夜间凉爽，一年365天有340天都是阳光灿烂的日子，作者用数字表明了这里的气候宜人，令人信服。在面积上，作者客观描述了主校园占地600英亩，其中200栋建筑物都是由当地的岩石建造，给人的印象是建筑物与山浑然一体。整个段落81个字符，为读者展示了该大学的美好环境。

例2：

As disasters go，this one was terrible，but not unique，certainly not among the worst US air crashes on record.There was the unusual element of the bridge，of course，and the fact that the plane clipped it at a moment of high traffic，one routine thus intersecting another and disrupting both.Then，too，there was the location of the event.Washington，the city of form and regulations，turned chaotic，deregulated，by a blast of real winter and a single slap of metal on metal.The jets from Washington National Airport that normally swoop around the presidential monuments like famished gulls are，for the moment，emblemized by the one that fell；so there is that detail.And there was the aesthetic clash as well-blue-and-green Air Florida，the name a flying garden，sunk down among gray chunks in a black river.All that was worth noticing，to be sure.Still，there was nothing very special in any of it，except death，which while always special，does not necessarily bring millions to tears or to attention.Why，then，the shock here？（The Man in the Water by Roger Rosenblatt）

此段落主要是描述这次空难的不同寻常之处：一是飞机撞击时的时间和撞击物，二是撞击时的地点。作者细致描述了飞机坠入河中所迸发出的不同寻常的颜色，和华盛顿一刹那间变得混乱起来。

例3：

But the person most responsible for the emotional impact of the disaster is the one known at first simply as “the man in the water.” Balding，probably in his 50s，a huge mustache.He was seen clinging with five other survivors to the tail section of the airplane.This man was described by Usher and Windsor as appearing alert and in control.Every time they lowered a lifeline and flotation ring to him，he passed it on to another of the passengers.“In a mass casualty，you’ll find people like him." said Windsor.“But I’ve never seen one with that commitment." When the helicopter came back for him，the man had gone under.His selflessness was one reason the story held national attention；his anonymity another.The fact that he went unidentified invested him with a universal character.For a while he was Everyman，and thus proof （as if one needed it） that no man is ordinary.（The Man in the Water by Roger Rosenblatt）

此段描述了一位水中英雄，在生命关头，他一次一次地把生的希望留给了别人。虽然人们无法知晓这个人的名字，但是他被铭记在人们的心中。作者在描述这位英雄时，先描写了这个人的外貌，然后叙述他的行为，呈现出这个普通人的伟大，他是时代的英雄。第一句主题句告诉读者这次灾难最让人感动的人物是“水中人”（英雄）。

例4：

Staring blankly at my exam，I tapped my pencil rapidly on the side of my desk and desperately tried to focus.Mustering up some courage，I wrote an answer to the second question.Just as quickly，I erased the answer frantically，not wanting to leave a trace of it on the blank white paper.As the teacher announced that time was almost up，I remembered the taunt of my evil grade-school teacher：“You’ll never pass this test.Just give up already.” The memory of her words paralyzed my mind.Even more panic-stricken than before，I stared wildly at my blank test，trying to remember what the teacher had said in class last week or what I had read in the textbook.^[6]

此段落是人物心理描述，描述了参加测试者的紧张状态。通过描写他的动作和心理，告知读者他的紧张程度。在此作者多次使用了描写动作（静态的和动态）的副词，如blankly、rapidly、desperately、quickly、frantically、widely。

（二）程序描写（Description of a Process or Procedure）

这种描写是对一个过程和程序的描述，让读者了解信息以及如何操作。

例1：

Stir-frying is the classic Chinese cooking method.It is quick and easy，tasty and flavorful.The steps are as follows：1.All ingredients should be ready prior to heating up the wok.（The food to be cooked should be finely sliced or shredded into similar sized pieces using a very sharp knife or Chinese cleaver.2.When the wok is hot，a small amount of oil is added.3.The meat or seafood is quickly stirred and turned until semi-cooked.It is then removed from the wok and set to one side.4.More oil is added to the wok，if necessary.The vegetables and/or tofu are added and quickly stir-fried.5.The meat or seafood is added back midway through cooking，the seasonings are adjusted if necessary，and the dish is stirred until done.It should be served immediately.It is easy to require through practice.

此段落通过列举的方法把炒菜的程序告知读者。1、2、3、4、5，每一个步骤都非常清晰。

Exercise

1.Describe your university according the sample “The University of Colorado Boulder”.

2.Describe the most stressful moment when you sat in the exam.

3.How to cook one of your favorite dishes.

4.How to become slim and slender.

5.How to apply for a job.

二、定义法（Definition）

定义法是把一个要下定义的事物框定在一个大的概念中或者类别中，然后进行进一步的描述、解释。

例1：

Huawei is a Chinese electronic equipment manufacturing company headquartered in Shenzhen，Guangdong Province.It focuses on the ICT field，adheres to steady operation，continuous innovation and open cooperation，and has established end-to-end solution advantages in telecom operators，enterprises，terminals，cloud computing and other fields.

首先段落把华为定义为一个电子设备制造公司，总部在深圳；然后具体叙述公司的情况，如有什么特点和活力。

例2：

AlphaGo is an artificial intelligence （AI） agent that is specialized to play Go，a Chinese strategy board game，against human competitors.AlphaGo is a Google DeepMind project.The ability to create a learning algorithm that can beat a human player at strategic games is a measure of AI development.AlphaGo is designed as a self-teaching AI and plays against itself to master the complex strategic game of Go.There have been versions of AlphaGo that beat human players but new versions are still being created.

本段对阿尔法围棋下的定义为：阿尔法是一个人工智能系统，专门被研制出来下围棋，与人比赛；然后介绍阿尔法的算法能力。在这个定义中，段落中的句子使用了定语从句的形式来扩展定义，进一步解释阿尔法具体是干什么的。这种定义法比比皆是，它可以给读者更为清楚的概念。

例3：

Yoga is a physical，mental and spiritual practice that originated in ancient India.First codified by the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras around 400 C.E，the practice was in fact handed down from teacher to student long before this text arose.Traditionally，this was a one-to-one transmission，but since yoga became popular in the West in the 20th century，group classes have become the norm.

本段是对瑜伽的定义：瑜伽是一种体育锻炼方式，对身心都有好处。为进一步介绍瑜伽，用限制性定语从句进一步介绍瑜伽的悠久历史。

例4：

AI is a new technology science that develops the theories，studies and methods，techniques and applications for simulating，extending and extending human intelligence.Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer science that attempts to understand the essence of intelligence and produce a new intelligent machine that can react in a similar way to human intelligence.^[7]

本段首先告知读者人工智能是一项新兴的技术科学，接着也是运用从句扩展的方法，进一步定义人工智能这门科学。

对某个概念和新型事物的定义会有不同的语言限定，但是除了用简单句外，还可以用从句进行定义。

例5：

Artificial intelligence （AI）（人工智能）is the ability of a computer program or a machine to think and learn.It is also a field of study that tries to make computers “smart”.John McCarthy，a scientist，came up with the name “artificial intelligence” in 1955.Many things such as learning and problem solving can be done by computers，though not in the same way as we do.

这个段落基本上都是用简单句来向读者介绍人工智能，它同样也是用下定义的方式扩展段落。

例6：

The Cable News Network （CNN） is a multinational news-based pay television channel headquartered in Atlanta，Georgia.It is owned by CNN Global，which is part of Warner Bros.Discovery.It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietors Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel.

这个段落是对CNN的介绍，也是用下定义的方法扩展段落的。第一句清楚明了地告知读者 CNN是一家总部位于佐治亚州亚特兰大的跨国新闻付费电视频道，之后用复合句和简单句进一步说明。

例7：

Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure，including the study of morphology，syntax，phonetics，and semantics.Specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics，dialectology，psycholinguistics，computational linguistics，historical-comparative linguistics，and applied linguistics.

对学科的介绍，首先要告知读者所描述的学科是什么，研究对象是什么，文中用了介词including进一步详细说明。

例8：

Statistics is the science concerned with developing and studying methods for collecting，analyzing，interpreting and presenting empirical data.Statistics is a highly interdisciplinary field；research in statistics finds applicability in virtually all scientific fields and research questions in the various scientific fields motivate the development...

本段对统计学的定义，先确定它是一门科学，之后没有使用定语从句进行扩展，而是用了一个短语concerned with进行详细说明。

从以上实例来看，用下定义的方法扩展段落，首先要把下定义的概念进行归类，然后详细说明它的显著特点。

三、例证法（Exemplification）

例证，顾名思义就是通过举例来说明、阐释主题句的内容，通过列举典型的实例解释主题句。

例1：

By almost any measure，there is a boom in Internet-based instruction.In just a few years，34 percent of American universities have begun offering some form of distance learning（DL），and among the larger schools，it’s close to 90 percent.If you doubt the popularity of the trend，you probably haven’t heard of the University of Phoenix.It grants degrees entirely on the basis of online instruction.It enrolls 90，000 students，a statistic used to support its claim to be the largest private university in the country.（2007年12月大学英语四级考题）

此段落以美国大学的实例佐证基于因特网的教学蓬勃发展。此段落的主题句在第一句。

例2：

It is undeniable that continuously developing technologies have brought tremendous benefits，especially in learning area.Learning has in many ways become easier than has ever before.Taking learning English for example.In the past，few students owned tape recorders，and learning materials were scarce as well.But today，tape recorders get more and more inexpensive，and diversified learning materials are readily available.On the other hand，new device，such as MP3 or MD players，are offered in market，and relevant learning materials （MP3 files） are easily and freely downloadable from the Internet.^[8]

在此段落中，作者使用take...for example举例说明主题“Learning has in many ways become easier than has ever before.”。此段落的主题句在第二句，然后作者举例说明。

例3：

Friends can offer excitement and fresh ideas to a situation.No matter what I am doing，if a friend is there，it is more interesting.For example，if I am shopping，a friend makes the experience more fun.We can look at things together，and explore our likes and dislikes.Having a friend around also allows me to do some things that I would not be able to do otherwise.For instance，I can go with a friend to a park and play badminton.Some things are just impossible to do by myself.^[9]

此段落同样使用了for example为本段主题提供有力的证明。作者提到购物时有朋友陪伴的好处，又说到打羽毛球或去公园时，有朋友就可以做到自己单独不能完成的事情。

例4：

The beginning of the Middle English period coincides with the historic event of Norman Conquest of England （诺曼征服）in October 1066.The Norman Conquest had an enormous impact on the English language.French，spoken by the Normans，replaced English as the official langue，adding a massive amount of French and Latin vocabulary to the previous language.While English largely became the language of the lower classes.One interesting phenomenon was that the animals began to have different French names for their meat，for example，“pig” became “pork”，“sheep” became “mutton” and “cattle” became “beef” when it was served to the French-speaking masters.Thus，the blend of Anglo-Saxon，Latin and French which developed in the three centuries after the Norman conquest is known as Middle English.^[10]

此段是谈论中世纪英语的，用表示动物和动物肉的单词举例说明英法两种语言的地位。

例证法在论说文以及说明文中常常用到，它可以有力地佐证作者的观点，说明段落的主题思想，使读者信服。

四、划分与分类法（Division& Classification）

划分法是将一个概念分解为组成部分（breaks down a concept into its constituent parts），如一篇文章划分为四个段落，一所大学划分为多个二级学院，二级学院下分为各个系。划分是为了更加清楚地向读者说明要陈述的事物。

例1：

Science can be divided into different branches based on the subject of study.The physical sciences study the inorganic world and comprise the fields of astronomy，physics，chemistry，and the Earth sciences.The biological sciences such as biology and medicine study the organic world of life and its processes.Social sciences like anthropology and economics study the social and cultural aspects of human behaviour.^[11]

此段落描述了根据研究的主题科学可以分为不同的分支，然后分别去陈述。

例2：

The development of English can be divided into four periods.Namely，1） The Old English period from 600 to 1100，2） the Middle English period from 1100 to 1500，3） the Early Modern English period from 1500 to 1700，and 4） the Period of Present-Day English from 1700 until today.^[12]

此段落说英语的发展进程可以分为四个阶段，然后说清每个阶段的起止时间。这种划分法给读者一个清晰的概念。

分类法展开段落是将所要描述的事物或者材料组织为特定类别而进行陈述。在分类的语篇中，首先要说明作者想要概述的种类。常用的词有：type，form，way，part，reason，class，subdivision等。

例1：

Obesity is caused by many factors such as gene leptin，an irrational diet and lack of exercise.Due to the family history of obesity，obesity is caused by gene leptin deficiency.It is difficult for such obese people to eliminate obesity through exercise or dieting.Obesity is caused by an irrational diet.Excessive fat and carbohydrates in the diet lead to more energy consumption than it consumes.Eventually，excess calories are stored in the human body in the form of fat cells，which eventually leads to obesity.Obesity is caused by lack of exercise.With the pace of life gradually accelerating，office workers sit in the office every day to do high-intensity work.They rarely exercise except for walking a few steps to and from work.In the long run，they have become fatter and fatter.

此段落是说肥胖症的促成因素，开始句就鲜明提出了这些因素是什么，概括叙述了三种因素：gene leptin、 an irrational diet和lack of exercise，然后在接下来的语句中进行详细解释。

例2：

Test questions generally fall into categories，depending on how they are answered：objective and subjective.The first kind，objective questions，have definite right and wrong answers.Multiple choice.matching.and fill-in-the-blank questions are objective.Although they can be tricky because of their wording，most students prefer objective questions.The answers are already there，and the student just has to choose the right one.Subjective test items，such as short- answer and essay questions，have no single correct answer There is a range of possible responses.Students have to know the information in order to answer each question，and they have to present it in their own words.You can make a lucky guess on an objective question，but a subjective question doesn’t offer much hope for a student relying on dumb luck.^[13]

此段落是说测试的问题有两种，即objective和subjective。详细说明后，最后一句总结作者的观点。

例3：

Generally，language has three functions according to its purpose：informative，expressive and directive.Speaking with the purpose of communicating factual information called the informative function.Speaking in order to express feelings and attitudes of the listener is called the expressive to emotive function.And finally speaking in order to make other people act is called the directive function.

此段落谈论语言的功能，作者把语言的功能根据目的不同分为：informative、 expressive和directive，接下来解释说明三种功能。

从以上段落，可以总结出这种文本的写法：

●概述所要陈述的概念，并将它们分类；

●分门别类去陈述、解释、说明；

●最后总结陈述（有可能的话，依据整个文本的需要）。

五、比较与对比法（Compare and Contrast）

比较是找出所比较事物的相同点进行比较，比如比较圣诞节和春节的欢乐景象；对比是找出所比较事物的不同点进行对比，比如今年的气候与20年前的气候的对比。因此，比较是对同类事物按照一定的规则进行比较的常用方法，通过比较向读者说明事物。常用的词有：while，whereas，compared with/to，than，but，however。

例1：

One challenge teachers face is identifying and assisting students who are struggling without disrupting the rest of the class.In a traditional classroom environment，the teacher can easily identify when a student is struggling based on their demeanor in class or simply by regularly checking on students during Exercise.They can then offer assistance quietly during the exercise or discuss it further after class.Meanwhile，in a Zoom-based class，the lack of physical presence makes it more difficult to pay attention to individual students’ responses and notice frustrations，and there is less flexibility to speak with students privately to offer assistance.In this case，therefore，the traditional classroom environment holds the advantage，although it appears likely that aiding students in a virtual classroom environment will become easier as the technology，and teachers’ familiarity with it，improves.

此段落是对传统教室和现代虚拟教室的教师在甄别需要帮助的学生方面进行比较。此段落很好地围绕主题句中的关键词identifying和assisting展开，并使用连接词将作者的思路和表达清晰地告知读者，并将段落的句子有效地连接起来。^[14]

例2：

Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs.For example，people living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life.However，life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more low-key than it is in the city.If city dwellers want to see trees and grass，they must go to one of the public parks.On the other hand，the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs，and each house has its own grassy yard.Nevertheless，a person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment，but people living in suburban areas must go into the city for entertainment.^[15]

此段落通过对城市生活与郊区生活的对比，让读者清晰地了解这两个地方的生活差异，段落中合理地使用了对比的连接词，如however、nevertheless、 but，使句子连接起来，并体现了句子内容的转折。

对于比较、对比作文，我们应该注意的是，进行比较时要找到比较的点、比较的方面，从这个点或方面展开。

一般来说，在比较展开时，有两种结构模式：一种是逐点比较与对比（point-by-point style）；另一种是整体比较与对照（block style）。

逐点比较与对比，是指在比较两个事物时，说完第一点，再说第二点，说完第二点，再说第三点，以此类推。这样的方式是把一个方面说清楚，再说下一方面。

整体比较与对照，是指比较、对比两个事物时，先说一个事物，把这个事物说清说透，再说另一个事物。主题句要把两个事物比较的方面都说清楚。

●逐点比较与对比

Topic：X and Y are similar/different in several aspects.

I.Point of comparison/contrast 1

…

II.Point of comparison/contrast 2

…

III.Point of comparison/contrast 3

…

Conclusion：

例3：

Thesis statement：Studying in a state university is different from studying in a community college because of its cost，its learning atmosphere and living environment.

Point 1：Cost

A.a state university

B.a community college

Point 2：Learning atmosphere

A.a state university

B.a community college

Point 3：Living environment

A.a state university

B.a community college

●整体比较与对照

Topics X and Y are discussed separately.

I.All about Topic X

A.Point of comparison/contrast X1

B.Point of comparison/contrast X2

C.Point of comparison/contrast X3

II.All about Topic Y

A.Point of comparison/contrast Y1

B.Point of comparison/contrast Y2

C.Point of comparison/contrast Y3

例4：

Thesis statement：Studying in a state university is different from studying in a community college because of its cost，its learning atmosphere and living environment.

I.Studying in a state university

A.Cost

B.Learning atmosphere

C.living environment

II.Studying in a community college

A.Cost

B.Learning atmosphere

C.Living environment

Conclusion：

Exercise

1.Write a paragraph about the garbage classification in China.

2.Choose one of the topics and write a compare and contrast paragraph.

●Coffee or tea

●Classical vs.pop music

●Playing inside or outside

●Two famous historical leaders

●E-mail vs.usual post

●Buying things online or shopping at malls

●Teachers vs.your parents

●Covid-19 compared to flu

3.Identify which one is point -by-point style and which one is block style.

Passage 1

The television and newspaper are still used in advertising.They each have advantages and disadvantages.

Television is an attractive medium for advertising because it delivers mass audiences to advertisers.When you consider that nearly three out of four Americans have seen the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire？You can understand the power of Television to communicate with a large audience.When advertisers create a brand，for example，they want to impress consumers with the brand and its image.Television provides an ideal vehicle for this type of communication.But television is an expensive medium，and not all advertisers can afford to use it.

After television，the medium attracting the next largest annual ad revenue is newspapers The New York Times，which reaches a national audience，accounts for $1 billion in ad revenue annually.It has increased its national circulation（发行量）by40% and is now available for home delivery in 168 cities.Locally，newspapers are the largest advertising medium.

Newspapers are a less expensive advertising medium than television and provide a way for advertisers to communicate a longer，more detailed message to their audience than they can through 48 hours，meaning newspapers are also a quick way of getting the message out.Newspapers are often the most important form of news for a local community，and they develop a high degree of loyalty from local readers.

Passage 2

Although both newspapers and television are important mass news media，television is more efficient in spreading news.First，newspapers have news printed in words，and thus require some education of the reader.However，news programs on TV are spoken in a way that is understandable to all people，educated or not.In this way，television may have a much larger audience than newspapers.Moreover，in the same length of time，television can convey much more information than newspapers do as news items on TV are carefully selected and compacted by editors who intend to convey as much information as possible in a definite amount of time.Furthermore，newspapers use to printed words and a limited number of static pictures attract readers’ attention.In contrast，the large volume of vivid pictures on TV，together with spoken descriptions，make the news programs more and more impressive than newspapers do.For these reasons，television is more efficient in spreading news.Many people prefer television to newspapers when they want to know news of the world.^[16]

六、因果法（Cause and Effect）

因果法是通过分析事物的因果关系来展开的。段落的主题句说出了一个现象、一个结果，其后的句子说明原因。这种分析事情发生的原因和结果的段落，要力求推理客观严谨，富有逻辑。因果法有三种模式：一种是先果后因；一种是先因后果；一种是因果连锁。

例1：

Some programs on TV have negative effects on the children.First，many commercials may create children’s desire for unnecessary products because they don’t really know what they want.Second，horror programs are so scary that they will affect children’s heart.Third，many adult programs contain violence and sex，which are likely to lead to juvenile crimes when children grow up.Therefore，various measures should be taken to reduce TV program’s negative effects.

此段落是先说出结果，后列举造成结果的原因。

例2：

Michelle slept through her alarm clock and left her apartment in a rush.As she hurried down the sidewalk，she looked at her phone to check her email.She tripped over the curb and sprained her ankle.

此段落是一个多因后果的例子，它引举出一系列的原因，如“slept through her alarm clock and left her apartment in a rush”“hurried down the sidewalk”“looked at her phone to check her email”“tripped over the curb”，也就是Michelle一系列的动作导致“sprained her ankle”。

例3：

Plastics find wide application in our daily life.We have plastic cups，plastic plates，and plastic bags.We also have plastic containers and plastic raincoats，etc.In industry，plastics are being used for moving parts.

Why do plastics find such wide uses？It is because they have many useful purposes.They are cheap，light，and strong.They do not rust at all.Besides they can be easily made into any shape，size and color.^[17]

此段落是分块式编排，即把所有的结果当作一个整体，然后再把所有的原因当作一个整体。这样的编排给读者一个清新的概念。

因果连锁法，即一个原因导致一个结果，而这个结果又导致另一个结果。

例4：

Take facial tissues as an example of how mass production works.When facial tissues were first put on the market in 1924，they were made in limited quantities and sold at 65 cents per box of 200.People liked these facial tissues immediately and began asking for them when they went into different stores.

Because there was such a demand for the product，manufacturers began making tissues in larger and larger quantities.Because the manufacturers were making tissues in greater quantities，their production costs were lowered，so that the cost of tissues went down.In the meanwhile，the quality of facial tissues was constantly improving，because more and more manufacturers went into the business of making tissues，and each manufacturers strove to make his product better than his competitors’.Today，instead of costing 65 cents，a box of 200 facial tissues costs around one-third of that price，and they are both softer and stronger.

此段落是典型的因果连锁式，一个原因导致一个结果，而这个结果又成为另一个结果的原因。面巾纸招致人们的喜爱，这势必引起制造商的追逐生产从而导致面巾纸的价廉。

因果段落经常用到的词语有：so，since，that is why，because，for this reason，accordingly，because of，as a result of，therefore，consequently，as a consequence，to result from，for this reason，hence，lead to，contribute to，is responsible for，causes，due to，the reason for，thus，finally。

Exercise

1.Observe the following sentences and make an analysis of how the sentences are connected.

（1） She made one big mistake，as a result，she lost her job.

（2） Mary studied hard for the chemistry exam.Therefore，she got an A+.

（3） It rained heavily，consequently the football game was called off.

（4） He didn’t complain to the police，accordingly the police took no action.

（5） My father hasn’t slept in 4 days due to his illness.

（6） Since it was chilly outside，Benjamin built a big fire in his fireplace.

（7） We went to the grocery store because we needed sour cream，eggs，and milk.

（8） Old people often try to economize on heating，thus endangering their health.

（9） After several long delays，the plane finally left at 6 o’clock.

（10） All price controls lead to shortages.

2.Identify the types of cause and effect paragraph.

Passage 1

The city of Midvale experienced a severe wildfire last summer.Experts traced the outbreak to a dry patch of forest.In this area，a buildup of twigs and branches provided fuel for the wildfire.During the last few years，Midvale has suffered extreme drought conditions.City officials blamed climate change for the decreasing rainfall.

Passage 2

Most people think that life at present is much easier and more comfortable than ever before.Convenience food from the market simplify cooking.Ready made dress make people appear in high spirits.Electric appliances have taken the drudgery out of housework.Released from these household chores，people have more time for entertainment.So they enjoy life at present now.

3.Choose one of them in the following and write a cause and effect paragraph.

climate change

earthquakes

poverty

illness

4.Choose one of them in the following and write a paragraph of effects.

effects of an unhealthy diet

effects of leadership within a group

effects of drug usage

effects of industrialization

effects of drug abuse

七、论证法（Argumentation）

论证是使用有利的例子或者史料说明作者的观点并促使读者信服的过程，一般有归纳和演绎两种方法。

（一）归纳法（Induction）

归纳法是从具体到抽象或从特殊到一般的推理过程，即把具体的内容置于段落的前面，然后根据这些事实引申出一个符合逻辑的结论。在这种段落里要有推理（reasoning）和事实（facts）。

例1：

The knock at the door informs you that someone comes to visit you.The ring of the bell tells you that it is time you should go to class.The horn of a car warns you of the danger on the road.Sounds are useful.

此段落通过具体的描述各种声音的有用性，最后得出结论“Sounds are useful.”。

例2：

In Chicago last month，a nine-year-old boy died of an asthma attack while waiting for emergency aid.After their ambulance was pelted by rocks in an earlier incident，city paramedics wouldn’t risk entering the Dearborn Homes Project （where the boy lived） without a police escort.Thus，the nine-year-old boy died as a result of having to wait for emergency treatment.

此段落是以一个具体事例为依据得出最后的结果：孩子的死是因为急救车没有及时赶到。

（二）演绎法（Deduction）

演绎法又称演绎推理，同归纳推理相对，即从抽象到具体的推理。在段落中，把带有普遍性或概括性的句子置于段首，后面的句子以此为依据，通过具体事实加以说明和推理论证。

例1：

The world is filled with all kinds of sounds.We utter sounds when we speak.We made sounds when we work or move.Animals produce sounds，so do various kinds of machines.Some sounds are beautiful and sweet to hear，while others are unpleasant to our ears.

在此段落中，第一句是一个带有概括性的句子“The world is filled with all kinds of sounds.”，然后接下来的句子都是用于具体说明这一句的。

例2：

Ancient Greece gave us the first philosophers，whose names have been placed among those of the enlightened elders.One of these figures is Aristotle，disciple of the great teacher Plato，who in turn was a disciple of Socrates.Socrates is considered the first great philosopher.The theories of Aristotle are still valid，and are the basis of many of the postulates of current thought.His studies on art and empirical sciences in many cases renewed the thinking of later eras and established new paths of investigation.

在此段落中，第一句是主题句，告知读者希腊贡献了第一批哲学思想家，后面的句子以亚里士多德这位伟大的哲学家为例。

Exercise

1.Study the following passage and see whether the passage is organized inductively or deductively.

Which really gets to the core of the matter？Who is telling us that we need to keep up with the Kardashians？The media.Until the late 1880s，magazines were not widely read.They were for the rich，who could afford both the time and money to read them.But toward the end of the 19th century，two events happened that forever changed our world：second class mail came into being and the rotary printing press was invented.This dropped the price of magazines so that they were affordable for the working class.Mass media was born.And this opened up a whole new world.

Prior to the late 1880s，most of us were so busy trying to make a living that we didn’t care what the Joneses were doing，nor did we know，for that matter.But with the birth of mass media，suddenly we were being told in no uncertain terms that not only were the Joneses far better than we were，but also that we should do something about it.You see，we didn’t know that we weren’t good enough until someone told us.And much of that assessment was，and still is，based on a perceived lack of things we’re told we should want or have.“Fortunately，” those same magazines provided us with ready solutions in the form of advertisements for products that would “catch us up” to the Joneses.Of course，by the time we got there，the Joneses were ahead of us again （kind of like how your brand-new computer is out of date as soon as you walk out of the store） and the vicious cycle of keeping up with the Joneses perpetuated itself ad infinitum.^[18]

2.Write a reductive paragraph and an inductive paragraph.

八、图表数据法（Figures & Statistics）

数据是最直观反映事实的一种有力的手段，它可以使用纯数字的方法叙述事实，也可以是利用图表加数字的方法展示事实的变化。在科技文章、商业报告以及日常的年终总结中都会运用到图表数据法。

（一）统计数据表示法

请阅读下列节选文章，注意用于图表数据的词语。

例1：

Little wonder that a Pew Research Center survey released last week came as a big surprise.It shows that 36 percent of young American adults aged 18 to 31 — the so-called Millennial generation — were living in their parents’ home in 2012.

This is the highest proportion in at least four decades and represents a slow but steady increase from the 32 percent recorded prior to the financial crisis of 2007 and the 34 percent when the crisis officially ended in 2009.

The study found that a record 21.6 million Millennials lived in their parents’ home in 2012，up from 18.5 million in 2007.

College students who live in dorms during the school year are also counted as living with their parents，and they account for a third to half of the 21.6 million.

Men are more likely than women to live with their parents，40 percent versus 32 percent.The gender gap has been consistent over the years.^[19]

从上面的短文中，我们可以注意到这些词语：数字+percent of，the highest proportion，a slow but steady increase，up from，account for a third to half of，gap。这些词语都是常见常用的。表示“增长”的词语increase是最活跃的词，使用它时要注意搭配。

increase做动词时，与名词搭配为：increase+ number，risk，rate，tax，price，cost，amount，production，chance，likelihood；与副词搭配为：increase + dramatically，significantly，greatly，substantially。

increase做名词时，与其他名词搭配为：percent，tax，rate，price，number，population，cost，wage + increase；与形容词搭配为：significant，dramatic，substantial，huge，rapid，sharp + increase；与动词搭配为：show，lead，result，cause，experience，indicate + increase。

还有，increasing表示“越来越”；increased表示“增加的”；on the increase表示“在增加”。

表示“减少”的reduce也是使用较多的一个词，表示法如下：to reduce to减少到；to reduce by减少了。

还有表示“减少”的词，如：decrease，decline，go down，drop，decelerate，be down，shrink，contract，slump，fall，cut等。

（二）表示“...占多少比例”的常用句式

1.…account for +数值+ of +...

例1：

——In China，recipients of professional master’s degrees accounted for 35 percent of all new master’s degree recipients in 2012，while the ratio rose to 58 percent in 2021.

我国硕士专业学位授予人数占比从2012年的35%增至2021年的58%。

例2：

——Students made up nearly 22% of the group.

学生占这个群体约22%。

表示占比的动词还有constitute，occupy，amount to，take up，cover，hold，represent等。

2....occupy/cover a large proportion/the biggest proportion of/in…

例3：

——The middle class occupy the biggest proportion in that country.

中产阶级在那个国家占最大的比例。

例4：

——Water covers a large proportion of the earth's surface.

水覆盖了地球表面的大部分。

3.The/A proportion of … +verb…

例 5：

——The greater proportion of the land is used for agriculture.

大部分土地用于农业。

例6：

——Nowadays，the proportion of people’s income spent on food has decreased while that spent on education has increased.

如今，人们用于食品的收入比例下降，而用于教育的收入比例上升。

（三）表示数据增长 / 下降的常用句式

1.the number of...increased dramatically from 数字 in 年份 to 数字 in 年份，while the number of XXX declined from 数字 in 年份 to 数字 in 2010，也有上例直接写上数字后加up from。

例：

The study found that a record 21.6 million Millennial lived in their parents’ home in 2012，up from 18.5 million in 2007.

研究发现，2012年有创纪录的2160万千禧一代住在父母家中，而2007年为1850万。

increase这个词既可以做动词也可以做名词。

例：

This is the highest proportion in at least four decades and represents a slow but steady increase from the 32 percent recorded prior to the financial crisis of 2007 and the 34 percent when the crisis officially ended in 2009.

这是至少40年来的最高比例，与2007年金融危机前的32%和2009年金融危机正式结束时的34%相比，增长缓慢但稳定。

2.the number of XX grew by 变化幅度，from 数字 1 to 数字 2 over the 起始年到终止年的年数。

3.there was a dramatic/sharp increase in XX from 数字 1 to 数字 2，while that of...dropped slightly from 数字 3 to 数字 4。

4.the percentage of XX rose from 比例1 in 年份 to 比例2 in 年份，increasing approximately比例变化幅度，while the percentage of XX remained almost unchanged during the period。

（四）倍数表示法

例：

Digital China，already a global force in serving consumers：42% of global e-commerce，11 times the mobile payments of the United States，one-third of the world’sunicorns（独角兽企业）.While China still lags behind the United States on digitization of industries，the gap is closing rapidly.In 2013 Us industries were 4.9 times more digitized than China’s；In 2016 that figure had fallen to 3.7 times.

由此看倍数的表示：times + 名词短语（11 times the mobile payments of the United States）；数字+ times more than。

下面为表示“增加”的表达：

●倍数（twice，times）as +形容词原型+ as

●倍数 as much /many + as

●倍数 +形容词/副词的比较级+ than

●倍数+ the size/height/length/width，etc + of +...

例1：

——Asia is four times as large as Europe.

亚洲的面积是欧洲的四倍。

例2：

Women working as housekeepers in the under 35 age group in 2014 were almost twice as many as in 2004.

2014年35岁以下的女性做保姆的人数几乎是2004年的两倍。

例3：

——This room is twice larger than that one.

这个房间比那个大两倍。

例4：

——This street is four times the length of that one.

这条街是那条街的四倍长。

注意表示增加、减少的介词：

●To reduce to …+ 数字（减少到）

●To reduce by …+ 数字（减少了）

例5：

——Costs have been reduced by 20% over the past year.

过去一年，各项费用已经减少了20%。

例6：

——Exports were down by 6.6% compared with the same month last year，much better than expected.

出口与去年同期相比下降了6.6%，远远超出了预期的水平。

例7：

——As a result of being copied from the organs of the body’s own cells，it can be “allograft rejection” phenomenon to reduce to a minimum.

由于被复制的器官来源于自身的体细胞，故可将“异体排斥”现象减小到最低限度。

Exercise

1.Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

（1）One of the biggest American lenders，Wells Fargo，has just reported that its profits dropped by 99% in the first quarter compared with a year earlier.

（2）Assuming that COVID-19 and restrictions on daily life peak in the second quarter，the fund thinks global GDP will shrink by 3% this year，although advanced economies are expected to contract by an average 6.1%.

（3）The population is increasing at about 6% per year.

（4）The number of new students decreased from 210 to 160 this year.

（5）According to the Ministry of Education 4.57 million people signed up for the exam this year up by 21 percent from last year.

（6）Emerging as one of the markets that underwent a strong rebound10 in 2021，China’s commercial real estate sector8 saw its transaction volume reach $39 billion，up 21 percent year-on-year，said a report published by JLL，a global real estate service and investment management firm.

（7）By category，investment in offices took the lion’s share in the commercial property market，accounting11 for 37 percent of total transaction volume.Logistics transactions grew significantly to 38 billion yuan in 2020，from 16.9 billion yuan in 2019，and jumped to 59.1 billion yuan in 2021.Large-scale portfolio12 transactions boosted retail investments，and alternative transactions hit a record high，the report added.^[20]

2.根据下面的图，写一段文字。提示：下图表示的是人们对不同水果派的喜爱程度。苹果派所占比例最大，表示人们最喜欢它。^[21]

九、引证法（Quotation）

就是用名人警句、谚语、经典性论述、成语、俗语、传说等来论证段落里的观点。它经常用在论说文中，以此作为论据，增强文中内容的权威性、说服力、感染力。

运用引证法要注意两个方面的因素：一是要找到确切的理论依据，可以称之为“引”；二是要对理论根据加以分析，使之与论题充分联系起来，可以称之为“证”。也就是说在引用理论根据后，要对其加以阐释、说明，讲清所引用资料的意思，并把它与主题紧密联系起来，然后“悟”，悟你、我、他。名言名句都是在特定背景下产生的，引用它必定要有所悟，与文中内容贴切，支持你的观点。如果你引用的名言警句缺少针对性，那么你的引证就缺乏逻辑性，至少在你的文中是这样的。引用还需要注意简洁，不要把别人的话用得太多，能够说服你的观点就行了，毕竟你的文章要以你的论述为主。引用的话可以直接引用，也可以间接引用。

（一）直接引语

直接引语在使用过程中，要使用正确的标点符号，以此清晰地告知读者，这是引用的话。一般来说，被引用的话用标点符号标出来（见标点符号的用法一节），被引用的话，其标点符号在引号内。整个句子的引用，要注意大小写。

例：

——Ma Yun said，“I’m looking forward to a relaxing life in the future.”

马云说：“我期待着未来的轻松生活。”

——“As a fellow entrepreneur，I understand the importance of getting support during the early days，” said Ma.“This prize demonstrates our support of the next generation of young entrepreneurs across Africa who are paving the way for a better future and imparting positive change in their communities.”

“作为一名企业家伙伴，我理解在公司创业早期获得支持的重要性”，马说，“这个奖项表明了我们对非洲下一代年轻企业家的支持，他们正在为更美好的未来铺平道路，并为社区带来积极的变化。”

（二）间接引语

间接引语指不是直接引用别人的话，而是用自己的话转述。

——Ren Zhengfei，who is the Founder and Co-chairman of the company，said in a recent interview that he is a puppet leader of Huawei.

鲁迅说，时间就像海绵里的水。如果你喜欢，仍然可以挤出来。

——Ren said that he would like to be called a spiritual leader than a good founder or chairman of the company.

老子说合抱之木，生于毫末；九层之台，起于累土；千里之行，始于足下。

名言、格言、俗语、谚语是人们在长期的社会实践中悟出来的道理，具有一定的广泛性，并得到人们的认可。在写作中正确使用这些语言，定使行文流畅，文章生辉。这些语言寓意深刻，富有哲理，格调高雅，语言优美。有的音韵和谐，富有诗意。

例：

——Men often discover their affinity to each other by the love they have each for a book—just as two persons sometimes discover a friend by the admiration which both have for a third.There is an old proverb，“Love me，love my dog.” But there is more wisdom in this：“Love me，love my book.” The book is a truer and higher bond of union.Men can think，feel，and sympathize with each other through their favorite author.They live in him together，and he in them.^[22]

名言等句子的使用，有的可以放在段落的句首，有的可以放到段落的中间，它们的位置以作者所写段落的需要而定。但切记它们都是为段落主题服务的。它们要么放在段落的开头自然地引出主题，增强表达力，要么作为段落主题思想的论证。总之，引经据典的句子通常要用引号与其他句子隔开，以凸显它与其他句子的不同。

格言、俗语等的表达法如下：

●As a saying goes...

●There is a famous quotation from...

●As the proverb goes...

●We all know“…”

●There is a quote that says...

●As a/the proverb has it/puts it...

●As the old Chinese saying goes...

●A famous proverb says...

Exercise

Choose one of the following proverbs to write a paragraph.

“A picture is worth a thousand words.”

“A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.”

“Laughter is the best medicine.”

“Appearances can be deceptive.”

“All that glitters is not gold.”

“Honesty is the best policy.”

“Actions speak louder than words.”

“A friend in need is a friend indeed.”

“Practice makes perfect.”

十、综合法（Combination of Methods）

在一个段落里或者一篇文章中，人们用的不止一个发展段落的方法，而是多种方法，这就是综合法。这样文章显得充实，文章形式丰富。综合法在论证文、说明文、记叙文中都会经常用到。

例1：

Cities where gambling is legal are considered to be great tourist attractions.When a casino opens，an influx of money enters the community’s economy because of the number of tourists.Las Vegas is a testament to how tourists’ dollars are capable of transforming a barren desert into a highly desired destination.The increase in the number of tourists results in an increase in spending in the community，thereby providing opportunity for employment and a boost to the hospitality industry.One of the reasons why many people have become willing to try to gamble is because the majority of people no longer view the act as a sinful and dirty vice provided by the corrupt underworld （Govoni，Frisch，& Getty，1998）.

此段落运用举例法、因果法和论证法展开，解释说明清晰。

Exercise

1.Study the following passages and figure out the devises it use to develop them.

Passage 1

With easy access，an interactive online learning community and the advantages of free education，people can earn credits by taking the best courses taught by the best professors around the world.Thus，MOOCs are about to trigger （引发） a revolution in higher education by making classes at top universities available to all.College classes are no longer restricted to a small group of elite students；anyone who is interested in a specific field may be able to earn a college degree.Online education via MOOCs is a revolutionary trend in higher education and may eventually replace traditional college classroom teaching.

Passage 2

The negative consequences of technology addiction can be illustrated from two aspects.For one thing，being indulged in technological gadgets is detrimental to students’ academic performance.For example，many university students stay up all night to play video games and thus feel drowsy and distracted in class.In addition，many psychological researchers found that the excessive use of technological devices can have an adverse effect on individuals’ mental well-being and interpersonal relationship.For instance，modern people，especially youngsters，are reluctant to interact face to face with their friends and families because of the indulgence in online social media platforms or computer games.

2.Please write a paragraph with several methods combined for paragraph development，according the following the chart.

2018年—2020年我国快递业务量变动情况（单位：10亿件）