段落写作的基本原则（Effective Paragraph）
段落写作一定要注意：完整性，一致性、连贯性和句式的多样性。
一、完整性（Completeness）
段落的完整性表现在结构和内容两个方面。结构的完整性是指段落有头有尾，有中间部分，即有主题句、发展句和结论句。段落的主体部分，即发展句，要说明、阐释得当，要有一定的逻辑关系，要扣住主题句展开，内容要排列有序。
例：
There are several reasons why a person should follow a proper diet.First of all a healthy diet，which includes plenty of fruits and vegetables，provides the vitamins and minerals that a person needs to stay healthy.Second a proper diet gives the energy needed to carry out daily activities.Finally good food is ’brain food；’ it provides the important nutrients that a person needs to learn effectively.In sum，these are some of the many reasons why a person should follow a proper diet.
主题句：There are several reasons why a person should follow a proper diet.
主体部分（发展句）：First of all...to learn effectively.
结论句：In sum，these are some of the many reasons why a person should follow a proper diet.
主体部分都围绕着主题句展开说明、阐释，结论自然地结尾，总结主体部分。文中有简单句、并列句和复合句。
二、一致性（Unity）
一致性是指段落的支持句都是围绕着一个中心思想谈论的，每个发展句都是支持主题句的，如果发展句撇开了主题句的思想，那么段落的一致性就会失去。
例：
Passage 1
Many people view global warming as a problem too large and too far away for anything they can do to make a difference.However，in reality，there are lots of things we can do to stop，or at least to reduce it.
●Plant a tree.Trees “breathe in” carbon dioxide，but only as long as they’re living.
●Stand in front of the thermometer every day and check whether it will rise or fall down.The thermometer can predict that we should put on more clothes or not.
●Install low-flow shower heads and faucets.You’ll use less than half the water without decreasing performance.
●Buy energy-efficient electronics and appliances.Then，turn them off when they’re not in use.
●Reduce！Reuse！Recycling a stack of newspapers only four inches high will save a good sized tree.
●Mount a local campaign against global warming.Educate your community about how to cut greenhouse gas pollution.Support measures at the national and local levels that increase energy efficiency，and that encourage the use of clean，renewable solar and wind technology.
●Today is windy.we should stay in the house with closed windows and burn stoves.
这篇文章的主题是面对地球变暖我们能做什么。其中有几个句子与主题无关，如
“Stand in front of the thermometer every day and check whether it will rise or fall down.”“The thermometer can predict that we should put on more clothes or not.” 和 “Today is windy.we should stay at the house with closed windows.”。阻止地球变暖不是靠检查温度计和待在家里不出门。因此，这几个句子破坏了段落的一致性原则。
Passage 2
There are four distinct aspects to psychological separation from one’s parents.First，there is functional independence，which involves the capability of individuals to take care of practical and personal affairs，such handling finances，choosing their own wardrobes，and determining their daily agenda.Second，there is attitudinal independence，which means that individuals learn to see and accept the difference between their own attitudes，values，and beliefs and those of their parents.The third process of psychological separation is emotional independence.Hoffman defines this process as “freedom from an excessive need for approval，closeness，togetherness，and emotional support in relation to the mother and father.” For example，college students would feel free to select the major that they want to pursue without feeling they must have parental approval.Fourth is freedom from “excessive guilt，anxiety，mistrust，responsibility，inhibition，resentment，and anger in relation to the mother and father.” College students need to stand back and see where they are in the independence/dependence struggle.
此段落是关于即将成人的青年与父母的心理距离。段落的First...Second...The third...Fourth都是围绕着主题句“psychological separation from one’s parents”展开的，由此全段内容有机地构成一体。
将以上两个段落进行比对时，可知什么是一致性。一致性一旦被破坏，就会把段落的内容搞乱，让读者不能很好地理解。
对于理解发展句偏离主题的问题，需要进一步了解发展句的逻辑关系。一般来说，发展句按逻辑展开有四种类型：并列型、层递型、顺序型和转折型。[23]
（一）并列型
并列型是指段落内容处于平等并列的地位。如下图所示：
例：
①Advertisements appear everywhere in modern society.②When you walk along the streets，you will see large bill- boards here and there.③When you read newspapers，you will find half of the pages covered with ads.④When you turn on the radio or TV set，you hear and see ads again.⑤ Like it or not，ads pour into our lives.
在这个段落里第一句是主题句，②、③、④三个句子都是对主题句的解释说明，使主题句中的everywhere意思更加清晰明了。后三个句子之间是并列关系，句与句之间处于平等并列的地位，互不相属，只是组合在一起共同说明主题句。
有的段落的支持句并非就一句话，它后面还有间接的支持句去说明。
例：
Why is remembering presents so special？
①Above all，a present is a material expression of the emotional need to love and to give.②All humans，no matter how bad their actions，feel important when they give something to others.③Even the most selfish dictators enjoy awarding medals to loyal soldiers and politicians.④ In the worst interpretation，giving makes us feel powerful.[24]
第一句“Above all，a present is a material expression of the emotional need to love and to give.”是支持句，说明“Why is remembering presents so special？”，而②、③、④、⑤是进一步解释说明①的。在较长篇幅的文章中，都会有支持句在后面进一步解释说明，我们称之为间接支持句。
（二）层递型
层递型是指段落内容按语意的轻重、认识的深浅作由轻到重、由浅入深的排列。
例1：
①As a human being，one can hardly do without a friend.②We need friends to share our happiness and sad.③We consult with friends if there are problems we cannot handle alone.④We go to friends for help when we are in trouble.⑤In a sense，friends are often more important to us than relatives.
此段落是讲结交朋友的好处。从②到④句子意思逐渐加强。交朋友的好处从分享喜乐和悲伤，到自己无法解决问题时与朋友协商，再到我们处于困难时直接向朋友求助，这是一个意义层递的关系。
例2：
The live-stream shopping makes our life more convenient.Firstly，it enables consumers to have a more intuitive and comprehensive understanding of the products and service information.The traditional e-commerce model is mainly based on pictures which is too abstract to meet consumers’demand of knowing more information about products.Secondly，consumers can communicate directly with anchors（sellers） and ask questions online through the live platform.It not only greatly improves the shopping experience but gives the consumers a more detailed understanding and familiarity with the products.Thirdly，consumers have more and more personalized demand for products，and live-stream shopping meets people’s needs.The essence of live broadcasting is to stimulate users’ purchase desire quickly and make changes at any time according to the consumer’s demand.
（abridged version）
这是一个关于直播购物的段落。直播购物使我们的生活更加方便。Firstly …… Secondly …… Thirdly …… 层层递进，从更直观、全面理解产品到更详细理解、熟悉产品，再到对产品需求的更个性化研究，刺激购物者的购物欲望，并随时根据顾客的需求进行改变。
（三）顺序型
上面谈到的层递型就是一种固定的顺序型，但又不同于顺序型。顺序型是指构成段落的各句子按照事物发展由先而后地顺序排列，不可随意改变次序，通常在记叙文和表示程序的说明文中运用。
例：[25]
When writing your expository essay，follow these basic steps：
（1） Select a topic—Be sure the topic is narrow enough to make it manageable within the space of an essay.
（2） Select a method of development—Check through all the methods before you finally settle on the one which will best serve your thesis.Such as：definition | example | compare and contrast | cause and effect | classification | process analysis …
（3） Organize the essay— …
此篇阐释了说明文的步骤，（1）、（2）、（3），简单明了。三个步骤之间是不可随意调换的，否则就达不到写说明文的要求。
例：
How do you grow the peanut？First，put the shelled peanut seeds into water until they swell.Next，dig some holes in the ground.Put two or three seeds into each hole.Then，cover the holes with soil.After a few days，the seeds sprout，growing out of the ground with two green leaves.As time goes by，the young plants grow tall blooming with yellow flowers.Then you should loosen the soil and remove weeds for the plants because the peanuts are growing under the ground，loosening the soil is a preparation for the growth of the fruit.
此篇介绍了种花生的步骤，每一个步骤都解释得很清楚，从种子的进水泡发到挖坑，再从撒种、培土到长出苗，再到松土。
（四）转折型
转折型指段落内容上意思的转折，前面的叙述与后面的叙述有转折关系。
例：
I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.
Five score years ago，a great American，in whose symbolic shadow we stand today，signed the Emancipation Proclamation.This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves，who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice.It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.
But one hundred years later，the Negro still is not free.One hundred years later，the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination.One hundred years later，the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity.One hundred years later，the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.And so we’ve come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.
……
在这篇著名的《我有一个梦想》的演讲中，第三段与第二段是转折的关系。即100年前黑奴解放宣言的签署，在100年之后，黑人仍旧生活在种族隔离的镣铐中。
例：
A university education is very important to a good student.This type of student has set his/her sights on a university education from early on，and has put in the necessary work to earn a place in a good university.Poor students who did not try to achieve good grades in high school obviously do not care about their education，and therefore，do not deserve to go to university.However，if these poor students go back to school and improve their grades，they should also be allowed to go to university.
一个转折词“however”，意义一转，提出了另一个新的观点，如果学习不好的学生返回学校，努力学习，他们也应该有机会进入学校。
这种转折的例子，在对比的文章中是多见的。
Exercise
1.Find and cross out the supporting sentences irrelevant to the main idea in the paragraph.
Passage 1
I like a VR headset best for several reasons.First of all，the VR headset has ability to bring us to wherever we want to go.Although the transportation is very convenient for us to arrive at，we have to spend too much time on the journey to the destination.If you use VR headset，you can go anywhere immediately.What’s more，the screen and view it shows is real and vivid.It’s like you’re there，experiencing the wonderful feelings，enjoying the beautiful moments and falling into the happiness and wellbeing.It will be too real to forget you are just using a technology.The movie theater we went to brings us the real things sometimes，the vivid actors and actresses play the roles in our daily life，which makes us think about ourselves and people around us.All in all，the VR headset is my favorite.
Passage 2
I have seen a few uncivilized behaviors while traveling abroad.The first thing is that tourists’ scribbling on the places of interest outside，which causes damage to cultural relics.The second thing is that tourists’ spitting on the road they passed along when they felt it is not good to them.So the road should be cleaned as quickly as possible.The third thing is that scribbling violates local laws.If there is a child next to it，it is likely to cause an incorrect guide.So we have to set the right values.At the same time，we must implement the code of conduct of civilization into our own behavior.Because if you go abroad，your shame is not an individual，but the face of the country，others will not say how you are.He’ll say，what’s the quality of your country？
Passage 3
Once we spent our holiday at the seaside.When we arrived at the seaside，the weather was fine and everything around us was beautiful.The sea was all blue with seagulls hovering to and fro.Some boats were floating on the still sea and some speed boats were rushing quickly across the water.
We all enjoyed a pleasant time.Most of us swam in the sea.We played，fought and splashed water onto one another.Having swum for a while，we went to the shore and bathed in the sun on the sand ground.Some went boating.They sang as they boated.The others played games at the shore.Mother and I went to town and bought a lot of things.
We all spent the time happily.When it was time to go back，we were all reluctant to leave.We were freshened by the sea wind and fascinated by the scenery.The bath in the sea made us healthy and comfortable.I should say a holiday at a seaside is really enjoyable and profitable.
2.Compare the two paragraphs and figure out the difference between them.
Passage 1
Blindly worshipping the stars can be dangerous.First of all，celebrities tend to live by different rules to everyone else.If you were to adapt their unhealthy lifestyle，you would most certainly have to pay the consequences.Secondly，celebrities are often seen in expensive clothing，cars，and homes that most people can not afford.These expensive things are what you dreamed of.Day and night you missed them.In addition，photographs that you see of celebrities are often touched up to make them look more perfect than they really are.
Passage 2
Blindly worshipping the stars can be dangerous.First of all，celebrities tend to live by different rules to everyone else.If you were to adapt their unhealthy lifestyle，you would most certainly have to pay the consequences.Secondly，celebrities are often seen in expensive clothing，cars，and homes that most people can not afford.These expensive things are what you dreamed of.Day and night you missed them.In addition，photographs that you see of celebrities are often touched up to make them look more perfect than they really are.
三、连贯性（Coherence）
表示段落连贯性的英文词“cohere”意思是“to stick”“to hold together”。连贯是指内容逻辑上的连贯和结构上的连贯。段落由多个句子构成，不管多少个句子，文章一定要条理清楚，有逻辑性，层次要分明，衔接要自然。衔接的手段有语法手段、词汇手段和信息结构等。
（一）语法手段
1.连接词
语法手段达到段落的连贯，主要是通过连接词，也称过渡词和代词。连接词（过渡词）有表示时间顺序的、空间关系的、递进关系的，还表示转折、让步、比较、对比、举例、总结等。
表示时间顺序的有：in the end，last，eventually，before，after，as，until，meanwhile，next，afterwards，earlier，previous，soon，shortly afterwards，later，again，first，second。
例：
Book knowledge offers an employer many things.First of all，being able to master knowledge on one subject may mean that the employee could easily master knowledge on different areas that are important for the company.Secondly，having book knowledge also is a good indicator of one’s willingness to learn new things.Finally，this knowledge also might show that the employee is a hard-worker.[26]
表示空间关系的有：below，across，in front of，before，behind，opposite，below，beneath，close to，next to，behind，beyond，nearby。
例：
Tian’anmen Square in Beijing is decorated with large flower beds and a bridge-shaped structure with the CPC’s hammer and sickle emblem on top.On the left of the bridge is the number 1921，which is the CPC’s founding year；on its right is 2021，representing 100 years of Party history.
表示递进的有：in addition to，besides，furthermore，moreover，not only...but also...，also，as well as，additionally，in other words，equally important。
例：
I quoted him the wholesale price.I could afford to give him this one at cost；he’d been a good customer，what with his rock-hammer and his rock-blankets.Furthermore，he’d been a good boy — on more than one night when he was having his problems with Bogs，Rooster，and the rest，I wondered how long it would be before he used the rock-hammer to crack someone’s head open.[27]
表示转折的有：but，however，rather than，instead of，yet，on the other hand，unfortunately，whereas。
例：
From that moment on Meng Ke was quite another person.He never played truant again.Instead，he worked day and night，studying the doctrines of the various schools，and finally became one of the great thinkers of feudal China.[28]
表示比较的有：like，as，similarly，likewise，in the same way，in the same manner，equally。
例：
Good manners are the art of making those people easy with whom we converse.Whoever makes the fewest persons uneasy is the best bred in the company.As the best law is founded upon reason，so are the best manners.And some lawyers have introduced unreasonable things into common law，so likewise many teachers have introduced absurd things into common good manners.[29]
表示对比的有：on the contrary，by contrast，while，whereas，on the other hand，in contrast，unlike，instead，but，conversely，different from，however，nevertheless，otherwise，whereas，unlike，yet。
例：
When Chou En-lai’s door opened they saw a slender man of more than average height with gleaming eyes and a face so striking that it bordered on the beautiful.Yet it was a manly face，serious and intelligent；and Chu judged him to be in his middle twenties.[30]
表示举例的有：for example，for instance，such as，that is...，say，as a case in point，take...for example，except （for），to illustrate。
例：
Institutions need to proactively work to assimilate foreign students into their specific campus culture.This does not mean providing cheeseburgers and fries by way of welcoming foreign students to the school.It means that schools need to provide dietary，athletic，residential，and recreational alternatives that are sensitive to the needs of those cultures from which these foreign students come.When a student，for example，from Iran attends a college and pays full tuition and living costs at that college，it makes no economic sense for that student to receive diminished access to programs and reduced levels of student services when compared to students of local origin who may be attending on a discounted or grant-supported tuition basis.
表示强调的有：by all means，especially，indeed，in fact，certainly，particularly，above all，most important，even worse，as a matter of fact，in the world，in hell，under the sun。
例：
CNN：How can parents and caregivers convince teenagers they need more sleep？
Lewis：Lecturing them doesn’t have the desired effect.Having a conversation is more helpful，especially if it’s an ongoing conversation.Model good behaviors，like no tech use within one hour of bedtime.Teach them about things like a wind-down routine.Our brains are not like computers — you don’t just turn it off and hit the pillow and go to sleep.One thing that’s important is not to force any of it.[31]
表示结果的有：therefore，as a result，hence，so，accordingly，consequently，as a consequence，thus。
例：
Unfortunately，the global pandemic is still a reality for all of us.Therefore，our gratitude is even deeper for the Beijing 2022 Organizing Committee，the public authorities and all the Chinese people.Thank you for making these Olympic Winter Games happen — and making them happen in a safe way for everyone.[32]
表示原因的有：for this reason，due to，thanks to，on the ground that，because，because of，as，since，owing to。
例：
It is for this reason that earth roads often exhibit great differences in serviceability even in a restricted area.
表示让步的有：although，though，nevertheless，after all，in spite of...，despite，even if，even though，admittedly，whatever may happen，it is true...but。
例：
Dare to compete.Dare to care.Dare to dream.Dare to love.Practice the art of making possible.And no matter what happens，even if you hear shouts behind，keep going.[33]
表示总结的有：in a nutshell，on the whole，in conclusion，to sum up，in brief，to conclude，to summarize，in short，in a word，in summary。
例：
In conclusion，philosophical research is based on a long line of theories，many steeped in history and social based philosophies.Positivism，post-positivism，scientific realism，pragmatism and advocacy-liberatory frameworks all play an important part in the history and current workings of research and encompass many intricate ideals such is he importance of objectivity，making sure research has needed component （such as a quality literature review），and program evaluations.An in-depth knowledge of the workings of research will help with my future endeavors as an educational researcher.
2.代词照应
用代词指代前面说的人或事，是达到段落连贯的一个手段，代词能够建立句子与句子之间的联系，使段落内容顺畅、清晰，达到平稳过渡。代词照应有人称照应和指示照应。人称照应是指人称代词、物主代词、反身代词以及物主限定词与其所指对象之间的一种照应关系；指示照应是指指示代词和指示限定词与其所指对象之间的一种照应关系。
例：
Richard Vedder，an Ohio University economics professor，says，“I look at the data，and I see college costs rising faster than inflation up to the mid-1980s by 1 percent a year.Now I see them rising 3 to 4 percent a year over inflation.What has happened？The federal government has started dropping money out of airplanes.”
在此段落中，人称代词I指代的是Richard Vedder，an Ohio University economics professor；them指代college costs。
例：
When we talk about Americans barely into adulthood who are saddled with unbearable levels of debt，the conversation is almost always about student loan debt.But there’s a growing body of evidence suggesting that today’s young adults are also drowning in credit-card debt—and that many of them will take this debt to their graves.
在此段落中，（many of）them 指代前面的today’s young adults，this指代student loan（debt），their（graves）指代today’s young adults。
英语中代词的指代问题
●不定代词有：anybody、everybody、nobody、anyone、someone、everyone、no one，可用he、his、him代替。
●动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替，有时也用 he、 she，这时带有亲切的感情色彩。
●指代车、国家、船舶的名词，含感情色彩时常用 she。
●that 和those 指前文中的事物，this 和 these 指下文中将要讲到的事物，它们起一种承上或启下的作用。
●指示代词分单数（this / that）和复数（these / those）两种形式，既可做限定词又可做代词，例如：
限定词：This girl is Cathy.
Those men are my fellows.
代词：This is Cathy.
Those are my fellows.
Exercise
1.Please analyze and identify the transition devices used in the following paragraph.
Passage 1
Solar power offers an efficient economical and safe solution to the Northeast’s energy problems.To begin with，solar power is highly efficient.Solar collectors installed on fewer than 30 percent of roofs in the Northeast would provide more than 70 percent of the area’s heating and air-conditioning needs.Moreover solar heat collectors are economical，operating for up to twenty years with little or no maintenance.These savings recoup the initial cost of installation within only ten years.Most important，solar power is safe.It can be transformed into electricity through a storage battery in a noiseless process that produces no air pollution-unlike coal，oil，and wood combustion.In sharp contrast to its nuclear counterpart，solar power s produces no toxic waste and poses no danger of catastrophic meltdown.Thus，massive conversion to solar power would ensure abundant energy and a safe，clean environment for future generations.
Passage 2
The Earth is facing a climate crisis，but it’s also getting greener.According to a new research，the rise is largely because of China and India.A study by NASA，based on extensive satellite imagery，has revealed that the two countries with the world’s biggest populations are also responsible for the largest increase in green plants.
A third of the leaf increase is attributable to China and India，due to major tree planting projects as well as a vast increase in agriculture.“China and India account for one-third of the greening，but contain only 9% of the planet’s land area covered in vegetation （植被）—a surprising finding，considering the large populations in the countries need much land，” Chi Chen，the study’s lead author said in a statement.
Between 2000 and 2017，a NASA sensor gathered data of the Earth’s surface from aboard two satellites，the Terra and the Aqua.Using the data，researchers discovered that China is the source of a quarter of the increase in green leaf area，despite possessing only 6.6% of the world’s vegetated area.Forests account for 42% of that increase，while croplands make up a further 32%.China’s increase in forest area is the result of forest conservation and expansion programs，established to combat the impacts of climate change and air pollution.
Rama Nemani，a researcher at NASA’s Ames Research Center，said in a statement，“When the greening of the Earth was first observed，we thought it was due to a warmer，wetter climate from the added carbon dioxide in the atmosphere，leading to more leaf growth in northern forests，for instance.Now，with the data，we see that humans are also contributing，” Nemani said.“This will help scientists make better predictions about the behavior of different Earth systems，which will help countries make better decisions about how and when to take action.”
2.Fill in the blanks with transitional words.
Passage 1[34]
There are several ways I can refer to the eating habits of some of my friends in Canada and in Brazil.Based on my observations，Canadians love meat and potatoes；_______Brazilians prefer rice and beans.________Americans who favour apple pie for dessert，both
Canadians and Brazilians seem to prefer crème brulee and crème caramel.______，these are some of the many ways l can state some differences and similarities of the eating habits of some of my friends from Brazil and from Canada.
Passage 2[35]
My hometown and my college town have several things in common.______ both are small rural communities._______，my hometown Gridlock.has a population of only about 10，000 people.______，my college town Subnormal.consists of about11，000 local residents.This population swells to 15，000 people when the college students are attending classes.A ______ way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas.Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.______，Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle...
（二）词汇手段
词汇衔接是由语篇中出现的词汇之间的关系建立起来的同指、同类和同延关系，由具有同义、反义、上下义关系、搭配关系的词汇体现。段落的连贯性可以依靠词汇衔接，即用同义词、近义词、反义词、词的上下义关系、关键词的重复、短语的重复、搭配等手段来达到。
1.同义词、近义词、反义词
例：
This complexity is what makes Go hard for computers to play，and therefore an irresistible challenge to artificial intelligence（Al） researchers，who use games as a testing ground to invent smart，flexible algorithms that can tackle problems sometimes in ways similar to humans.The first game mastered by a computer was noughts and crosses （also known as tic-tac-toe）in 1952.Then fell checkers in 1994.In 1997 Deep Blue famously beat Garr y Kasparov at chess.It’s not limited to board games either-IBM’s Watson bested two champions at Jeopardy in 2011 and in 2014 our own algorithms learned to play dozens of Atari games just from the raw pixe inputs.But to date，Go has thwarted Al researchers；computers still only play Go as well as amateurs.In other words.machines have topped the best humans at most games held up as measures of human intellect.But with Go，human grandmasters have maintained an edge over even the most agile computing systems.（Demis Hassabis）
在此段落中，fell、 beat、 best、 thwart、 top 都是同义词，表示“战胜”的意思，避免了词语的重复单调，丰富了语篇的词语，同时也使段落中的各个句子在语义上连贯、衔接。
例：
My time in Vancouver was the most social in my life and for once I didn’t hate it.I enjoyed seeing new places and doing new things with new friends.I loved that they accepted me for my socially awkward self.I finally felt comfortable within myself and felt that I belonged，which was the biggest personal gain.
在此段落中，didn’t hate、 enjoy、 love、 felt comfortable 表达的都是同一个意思“喜欢”。其中hate与enjoy、 love是反义，但是通过使用否定词，就表达了同一个意思。
2.上下义词
上下义关系的主要意义是“内包”，即意义概括的词“内包”意义更为确定的词，也就是说上义词是对事物的概括性、抽象性说明，下义词是事物的具体表现形式或更为具体的说明。
如 animal 是sheep、 tiger、 wolf、 dog 等的上义词，sheep、 tiger、 wolf、 dog 为其下义词。在段落中，上义词和下义词的共同使用会对段落的衔接连贯产生积极作用。
例：
Hurricanes are the most powerful storms in the Earth’s atmosphere.The storms have different names depending on where they take place.Scientists call all these storms tropical cyclones.
If the storms form over the Atlantic Ocean or eastern Pacific Ocean，they are called hurricanes.Storms that form in the western Pacific Ocean are known as typhoons.In the Indian Ocean，they are called cyclones.
在此段落中，hurricanes、 typhoons、 cyclones都是storm的下义词，storms是它们的上义词。
3.关键词、短语的重复
例：
A good modern newspaper is an extraordinary piece of reading.It is remarkable first for what it contains：the range of news from local crime to international politics，from sport to business to fashion to science，and the range of comment and special features（特写）as well，from editorial page to feature articles and interviews to criticism of books，art，theatre and music.A newspaper is even more remarkable for the way one reads it：never completely，never straight through，but always by jumping from here to there，in and out glancing at one piece，reading another article all the way through，reading just a few paragraphs of the next.A good modern newspaper offers a variety to attract many different readers，but far more than any one reader is interested in.What brings this variety together in one place is its topicality（时事性），its immediate relation to what is happening in your world and your locality now.But immediacy and the speed of production that goes with it mean also that much of what appears in a newspaper has no more than transient（短暂的）value.For all these reasons，no two people really read the same paper：what each person does is to put together out of the pages of that day’s paper，his own selection and sequence，his own newspaper.For all these reasons，reading newspaper efficiently，which means getting what you want from them without missing things you need but without wasting time，demands skill and self-awareness as you modify and apply the techniques of reading.（1998年1月大学英语四级考题）
在此段中，关键词是newspaper，或者确切地说是a good modern newspaper，重复出现是为了表达作者的用意，强化读者对文章重点内容的关注，有效地衔接了文中句子间的内在联系。另外，文中也有同义词、近义词再现的现象，如good、 modern、 extraordinary，remarkable。
例：
But one hundred years later，the Negro still is not free.One hundred years later，the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination.One hundred years later，the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity.One hundred years later，the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.So we have come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.
此段落节选于马丁·路德·金的演讲《我有一个梦想》。在此段中，“one hundred years later”的不断重复，既提醒世人美国政府在一百年前签署的《黑奴解放宣言》在一百年后也没有得到落实，一百年后奴隶仍旧没有自由，仍旧生活悲惨。短语的重复又有效地使句子之间产生了连贯和衔接。
4.词语的搭配
例：
In bringing up children，every parent watches eagerly the child’s acquisition （学会）of each new skill — the first spoken words，the first independent steps，or the beginning of reading and writing.It is often tempting to hurry the child beyond his natural learning rate，but this can set up dangerous feelings of failure and states of worry in the child：This might happen at any stage.A baby might be forced to use a toilet too early，a young child might be encouraged to learn to read before he knows the meaning of the words he reads.On the other hand，though，if a child is left alone too much，or without any learning opportunities，he loses his natural enthusiasm for life and his desire to find out new things for himself.
在这段以培养孩子为内容的语篇中，与child搭配的词有bring up、 watch、 hurry、 force、 encourage、 leave alone，文章通过这些词有效地把内容连接起来。
（三）信息结构
在语言交际写作中，发话者是以信息单元的形式组织起一定的信息结构来传递信息的。发话者为保证语篇信息流的畅通，会把需要传递的信息处理为已知信息（旧信息）和新信息，从而达到有效的交际目的。
系统功能语言学中的主位（theme） 和述位（rheme） 理论清楚地说明了语篇段落中的新旧信息的分布规律。在句子中，位于句首的成分充当论述的起点，话语的出发点称为主位，其他部分为述位，是话语的核心内容。主位一般表示已知信息，述位一般表示新信息。每个句子都有自己的主位述位结构。
在此，本文用话题（topic）+述评（comment）进行论述。话题是已知信息，述评表示新信息。
Learning how to learn is one of the hot topics in education at the moment.
话题（given已知信息） 述评（new新信息）
“话题+述评”的常见模式有以下几种：单一话题推进模式，单纯直线推进模式、交替推进模式和超话题模式。
1.单一话题推进模式
顾名思义，单一话题推进模式是指在段落的发展中，各个句子的话题是相同的，即都是已知信息。这种模式在介绍性的文中和说明文中常见。
T（topic）1 +C（comment）1，T1+C2，T1+C3，…
例：
Gu Ailing Eileen is a freestyle skier who has competed for China.She competed at the 2022 Winter Olympic Games.She won two gold medals and a silver medal in freestyle skiing at the Youth Olympic Games in 2020.
例：
Aspirin is a salicylate （sa-LIS-il-ate）.It works by reducing substances in the body that cause pain，fever，and inflammation.
Aspirin is used to treat pain，and reduce fever or inflammation.It is sometimes used to treat or prevent heart attacks，strokes，and chest pain （angina）.
Aspirin should be used for cardiovascular conditions only under the supervision of a doctor.
2.单纯直线推进模式
这种模式是首尾相连的，即第二句的话题是第一句的述评，第三句的话题是第二句的述评。
T（topic）1 +C（comment）1，T2+C2，T3+C3，…
——变成T1+C1，T2（C1）+C2，T3（C2）+C3，…
例：
His grandfather owned this farmland before.That farmland was owned by his son now.His son sold that farmland to another landlord.
3.交替推进模式
这种模式是上面两种模式的混合，即每一个接下来的句子都有前一个句子的信息，从而够成另一个句子的已知信息或新信息。
T（topic）1 +C（comment）1，T2+C2，T3+C3，…
——变成T1+C1，T2+C2（T1），T3（C2）+C3（C4），T4+C4（C3）
例：
Rob Billot received a call from a cattle farmer.The farmer，Wilbur Tennant of Parkersburg， W.Va.，said that his cows were dying left and right.He believed that the DuPont chemical company， which until recently operated a site in Parkersburg，was responsible.Tennant had tried to seek help locally，but DuPont just about owned the entire town.He had been spurned not only by Parkersburg’s lawyers but also by its politicians，journalists，doctors and veterinarians.He reached out to Bilott because he knew the latter’s grandmother.（by Nathaniel Rich）
4.超话题模式
超话题模式指格局话题从同一话题派生出来。
T1：T1+C1，T2+C1，T3+C1
例：
There are three kinds of goals：short-term，medium-range and long-term goals.
Short-range goals are those that usually deal with current activities，which we can apply on a daily basis.Such goals can be achieved in a week or lessor two weeks，or possible months.It should be remembered that just as a building is no stronger than its foundation，out long-term goals cannot amount to very munch without the achievement of solid short-term goals.Upon completing our short-term goals，we should date the occasion and then add new short-term goals that will build on those that have been completed.
The intermediate goals are based on the foundation of the short-range goals.They might deal with just one term of school or the entire school year or they could even extend for several years.Any time you move a step at a time you should never allow yourself to become discouraged or overwhelmed.As you complete each step you will enforce the belief in your ability to grow and succeed.And as your list of completion dates grow，your motivation and desire will increase.
Long-range goals may be related to our dreams of the future.They might cover five years or more.Life is not a static thing.We should never allow a long-term goal to limit us or our course of action.
四、句式的多样性
句式的多样性主要体现在段落内所有的句子上，作者使用多种句式形式如长短句、简单句、并列句和复合句，祈使句、感叹句等使段落语言表达力增强、表达内容更丰富、语气更有情感和表现力。
例：
This is our hope.This is the faith that I will go back to the South with.With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood.With this faith we will be able to work together，to pray together，to struggle together，to go to jail together，to stand up for freedom together，knowing that we will be free one day.[36]
较短的一个段落表达了作者争取自由的信念。在这个段落里有简单句、复合句、排比句，并行结构，句式多样，语气强烈。特别是“with this faith we will be able to …”重复了两次，表达了作者的决心，激起美国黑人的斗志，唤起民众的支持。平行结构to work together、 to pray together、 to struggle together、 to go to jail together、 to stand up for freedom together表现出作者更强烈的语气。
Exercise
1.Study the following passages and clarify how the paragraphs achieve coherence.
Passage 1
There was once a man in South America who had a parrot（鹦鹉），a pet bird that could imitate（模拟）human speech.The parrot was unique.There was no other bird like him in the while world.He could lean to say any word except one.He could not say the name of his native town Cotano.The man did everything he could to teach the parrot to say “Cotano” but he never succeeded.At first he was very gentle with the bird，but gradually he lost his temper.“You stupid bird！Why can’t you learn to say that one word！Say Cotano or i’ll like you！” But the parrot would not say it.Many times the man screamed （大声叫）“Say Cotano or i’ll kill you！” But the bird would never repeat the name.Finally the man gave up.He picked up the parrot and threw him into the chicken house.“You are even more stupid than the chickens！”
In the chicken house，there were four old chickens waiting to be killed for Sunday’s dinner.The next morning，when he went out to the chicken house，the man opened the door.He was shocked by what he saw.He could not believe his eyes and ears.On the floor lay three dead chickens，the parrot was screaming at the fourth，“Say Catano or I’ll kill you！”
Passage 2
Although most people know that the success of a television show is measured by its ratings（排行榜），few know exactly how shows are rated.First，a rating company installs meters（测量仪器）in a few thousand representative homes in a particular area.When the television set in one of these homes is turned on，the meter records the day，time，and the channel.The meter then electronically sends this information to the rating company’s headquarters.A computer at the headquarters tallies （计算）all of the information from all the homes in the area.Finally，the computer prints a rating sheet that shows how many homes watched each show and which shows are the most popular.[37]
Passage 3
We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of “now”.This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism.“Now” is the time to make real the promises of Democracy.“Now” is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.“Now” is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood.“Now” is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.[38]
2.Arrange sentences in a clear order.
Passage 1
①All the trees are cut to the roots and the thick trunks and branches can be manufactured into the handles of agricultural tools，such as picks and shovels or a be used as the building materials.
②As winter set in，the people begin to pay attention to them-to harvest them.
③The second part d he harvest is to dig up some of the roots in areas where they are densely clustered.
④All the branches and twigs left over can be used as fuel.
⑤The roots dug are also very good material for fuel.The harvest anything it encompasses are a necessity of life for the local people.
⑥The thinner and more slender ones can be used to weave various baskets，summer caps and other interesting handicraft articles.
Passage 2
①The computer used for this purpose is programmed to be friendly.
②If a patient says he never drinks alcohol，the computer can ask him：“Never？Not even at parties or at Christmas？”
③For example，if a patient called Ann says that both her parents are dead，the computer will say：“I’m sorry to hear that，Ann.”
④Does this direct contact between the patient and the computer mean that we do not need doctors any more？
⑤Many patients who don’t want to tell their doctor how much they really drink are often more honest with a computer.
⑥1t depends！
⑦Besides expressing sympathy，the computer can also remind and question.
⑧Computers are useful because they do not look shocked if you say you drink two bottles of whisky a day.
⑨But as a doctor said：“We smile and we give a patient a handkerchief or put an arm around her shoulder if she is crying.That is why people will always want us.”
⑩And they do not stop to talk on the phone as doctors often do.
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