短文的构成（Structure of Essays）

第一节 短文的构成（Structure of Essays）

一篇完整的短文应该是主题鲜明、论据充足、论证清晰、条理分明、结构严谨、推理富有逻辑、行文流畅、语句连贯、表达适合目标语习惯的语篇。它是由几个相互关联的段落围绕着文章的一个大主题而组成的，每一段落阐述一个要点。一篇结构完整的短文一般由三个部分构成，即引言段、发展段（正文）和结尾段。

例：

Nowadays，an increasing number of people are concerned about the purpose that university education serves.However，whether they should mainly provide job-related skills or pure knowledge to graduates has caused a heated debate.My view is that practical skills should be the main focus of universities.

Firstly，it is obvious that for most students，the purpose of receiving university education is to obtain specific knowledge and skills which will enable them to become qualified employees in the future job market This is because after graduation.most of them will enter workplace，earn their living，and raise their ow families.So universities，as service providers，have to give top priority to their customers real needs.

Moreover，focusing on the job-related skills can benefit the university itself.For example，the science fiction blockbuster “Avatar” has marked a milestone in the filmmaking industry and sparked massive interest in 3D technology.If a university can quickly respond，and consolidate teaching resources to offer courses regarding 3D，not only will its graduates be more competitive in the near future，but the university itself will keep pace with the modern technological development and move forward.

That is not to say that universities should not pay any attention to pure scientific research.There are，of course，students interested in theoretical knowledge such as math and philosophy，and they will later become scientists and scholars who will make greater contributions to our society But unfortunately，these people are few and far between.

In summary，the major function of universities should be providing students job-related skills，guaranteeing high rate of employment，and thus helping the society function better.Meanwhile，we should not ignore the other important roles universities are undertaking.Only by doing so can universities maintain dynamic and sustainable development.^[1]

此文五个段落。第一段是引言段，中间段落是三段，即主体段，最后一段是结尾段。在引言段中，作者首先交代了写作背景，即：越来越多的人关注大学教育的目的，并提出了本文的主题思想，即：实用技能应该是大学关注的重点（practical skills should be the main focus of universities.）。

在主体段落里，根据主题思想作者从学生的角度谈上大学的目的是学习具体的知识技能，接着从大学本身的角度谈关注与工作相关的技能能使大学本身受益，主体段的最后一段谈关注纯粹的科学研究毕竟是少数。

结尾段，基于以上的说理、论证，总结全文。

一、引言段的写法

引言段是一篇文章的起点，关系到整篇文章的布局，决定着文章的发展方向。引言段是把读者引进来，把文章的中心思想引出来并交代主题写作背景。如果引言段写得好，可以吸引读者的眼球，让她/他继续读下去；如果引言段写得不好，主题思想表达不清，模棱两可，内容混杂，就会使文章在发展段落都无法顺畅地展开，更不用说使读者继续阅读了。引言段首先要起到点题的作用，能够吸引读者的注意力；同时，也要有承上启下的句子。

引言段因写作目的、读者对象和题材、体裁的不同而有多种写法。

*开门见山，点名主题

例：

Three passions，simple but overwhelmingly strong，have governed my life：the longing for love，the search for knowledge，and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.These passions，like great winds，have blown me hither and thither，in a wayward course，over a deep ocean of anguish，reaching to the very verge of despair.

对爱情的渴望，对知识的探求和对人类苦难不可遏制的同情，是支配我一生的单纯而难以抗拒的三种情感。这些情感如阵阵飓风，随意地把我吹得飘来荡去，有时吹过深沉痛苦的海洋，直抵绝望的边缘。

此段落主题句即第一句“Three passions，simple but overwhelmingly strong，have governed my life：the longing for love，the search for knowledge，and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.”。在接下来的段落里，文章分别谈了“the longing for love” “the search for knowledge”和“unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind”。

例：

Studies serve for delight，for ornament，and for ability.Their chief use for delight，is in privateness and retiring；for ornament，is in discourse；and for ability，is in the judgment and disposition of business.For expert men can execute，and perhaps judge of particulars，one by one；but the general counsels，and the plots and marshalling of affairs，come best from those that are learned.To spend too much time in studies is sloth；to use them too much for ornament，is the humour of a scholar.They perfect nature，and are perfected by experience：for natural abilities are like natural plants，that need pruning by study；and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large，except they be bounded in by experience.Crafty men contemn studies，simple men admire them，and wise men use them；for they teach not their own use；but that is a wisdom without them，and above them，won by observation…

读书可以怡情养性，可以摭拾文采，可以增长才干。在幽居独处时，最能体现其怡情养性的作用；在朋友交谈中，最能体现其摭拾文采的作用；在处世论事之际，最能体现其增长才干的作用。阅历丰富的人虽能逐一判断或处理具体问题，但出谋划策，统筹全局，唯有博学之士最能胜任。读书费时过多则懒散；过于追求文采显得矫揉造作；全凭书中条条框框论事，未免书生气过重。须知读书固可补天然之不足，而经验又补读书之不足。因为天生才干犹如天然花木，须靠读书修枝剪叶。而书本知识如不以经验相制约，其教导也难免过于笼统。有实际才干的人鄙薄书本，头脑简单的人羡慕书本，只有聪明人才会运用书本。因为书籍本身并不教人如何运用。运用之道，乃在书外，且高于书本唯有通过观察才能学到手。

此段主题句即第一句“Studies serve for delight，for ornament，and for ability.”。

*阐述背景或现象，引出主题

例：

When the six very best students from different cities in Guangdong Province all together chose universities in Hong Kong；when the very best student of Beijing picked up HK University while giving up the nearby Beijing or Tsinghua University；when the highest enrollment rate of Hong Kong Science and Industry University reached 48：1.It’s high time to ask where the real education heaven for students in China is.

Years ago，the answer certainly would be “Beijing or Tsinghua University”.But now no one could give the exact reaction without hesitation.The only sure thing is that HK universities have gradually showed an unusual attraction to a great many mainland students.

当来自广东省不同城市的6位高才生一起选择香港的大学时，当北京的高才生放弃就近的北京大学和清华大学而选择香港的大学时，当香港科技大学的最高入学率达到48：1时，该是质问何为中国学生真正教育天堂的时机了。

几年之前，（教育天堂的）答案无疑是“北京大学或者清华大学”。而现在人们必须经过犹豫之后才能给出回应。唯一可以确定的是：对内地学生来说，香港的大学逐渐显示出非比寻常的吸引力。

此引言段阐述了一个现象，即：内地的学生选择香港大学学习，最后在引言段的最后一句点名主题——香港大学对内地学生吸引力的原因。主体段落将展开谈论此事。

例：

Standing on the street of London you can’t believe your eyes：the once busy bustling city crowded with cars is now filled with streams of bicycles.Due to this new bike hire scheme London city is taking step to become a green city.

站在伦敦街头你不敢相信自己的眼睛：那曾经熙熙攘攘、车水马龙的街头现在全是自行车流。伦敦市政府新出台的自行车租赁方案使得伦敦正向绿色城市的方向迈进。

此段的最后一句话，虽然没有明显写出主题句，但是它提到了由于伦敦市政府新出台的自行车租赁方案使得伦敦正向绿色城市的方向迈进。因此可以断定下一段就是谈“伦敦市政府新出台的自行车租赁方案”。

*引经据典，导出主题

例：

British politician Winston Churchill once said，“Every day you may make progress.Every step may be fruitful.Yet there will stretch out before you an ever-lengthening，ever-ascending，ever-improving path.You know you will never get to the end of the journey.But this，so far from discouraging，only adds to the joy and glory of the climb.” To my mind，perseverance is the most important thing in our study.

英国政治家温斯顿·丘吉尔曾说过：“你每天都可能取得进步。每一步都可能取得成果。然而，你面前会有一条不断延长、不断提升、不断完善的道路。你知道你永远不会走到旅程的终点。但这一点非但不令人沮丧，反而会增加攀登的喜悦和荣耀。”在我看来，毅力是我们学习中最重要的东西。

此段落用温斯顿·丘吉尔的名言引出文章的主题，即坚持不懈在学习中的重要性。这种写法能够增添文章的色彩，吸引读者的注意力。

例：

Parents are children’s lifelong teachers.It goes without saying that teaching by example and precept is important.But which one is more important？An old saying gives us the answer，“Example is better than precept.”

父母是孩子一生的老师，言传身教的重要性不言而喻。但言传和身教相比哪一个更重要呢？一句谚语给了我们答案：“言传不如身教。”

此段落在最后引用了一句名言——“言传不如身教”，点出文章的主题。

*提出问题，导入主题

例：

How long can humans live？In most developed countries，people are now living an average of 75 years.But scientists are trying to find ways to lengthen our lives — perhaps to 120 years or older and to help us remain young as we age.

人类能活多久？在大多数发达国家，人们现在的平均寿命为75岁。但是科学家们正试图找到延长我们寿命的方法——也许可以延长到120岁或更老，并帮助我们随着年龄的增长保持年轻。

此段以问句的方式引起读者的关注，从而引出主题——科学家正想办法延长我们的寿命。这种方法最易引起读者的关注。因为它需要读者的参与回答，需要读者追寻答案。

例：

“How many times have you been late to class because you couldn’t find parking？You’re not alone—our campus is in desperate need of a new parking deck.”

以问句开头让读者深思，引出话题“我们的校园需要增加停车位了”。

例：

Have you ever considered the changes that are taking place and will take place in your life as a college student？Has it ever occurred to you that your professors and other school personnel have certain goals for your growth and maturity during your college years？Has it ever dawned on you that certain developmental changes will occur in your life as you move from adolescence to young adulthood？Though college students seldom think about them，key changes will probably happen to them during their college years.

本段以多个问句开头，引起读者考虑这些问题——大学期间学生的身心都会发生改变，从而引出主题。以问句开头引出主题在议论文、说明文中使用较多，它可以直接让读者进入你要谈论的话题。

*以某人经历引出主题

例：

A young friend of mine asked me in a letter，" What kind of man should I be？” My answer was，“Be a fighter.”

Another friend of mine inquired，“How should I live my life？” Again my answer was，“Be a fighter.”

我的一位年轻朋友在一封信中问我：“我应该成为什么样的人？”我的回答是：“成为一名斗士。”。

我的另一个朋友问道：“我该如何生活？”我的回答是：“做一名斗士。”

此引言段由两个简短的段落构成，通过一问一答，引出文章的主题——成为生活中的斗士，而问句都是本人的亲身经历。^[2]

例：

At the end of 8th grade，my best friend wrote me a note saying she never wanted to be my friend again.All summer，I was devastated and terribly depressed，terrified to start High School alone.Forty years later，I realize that that experience was probably what made me finally reach out to develop new friends.Those friends encouraged me to develop my life-long interest in speech，theater，and writing.More importantly，that experience of rejection gave me a lifelong compassion for others.^[3]

在引言段中，作者以自己失去朋友的亲身经历向人们谈起朋友的重要性，特别是遭到朋友的背叛后学会关爱他人，由此引出话题。

*由数据引出主题

例：

Numbers of most animal species worldwide are going down.For example，in the 1970s，there were about 1，200，000 African elephants.Today there are only about500，000.In the 1970s，there were about 200，000 African lions.Today，there are fewer than 21，000.But there is some good news.For example，in the 1970s，there were only about 1，000 bald eagles.Today，there are more than 50，000.Giant panda populations also look to be increasing，but very slowly.In the 1970s there were about 1，000 pandas in the wild，today scientists think there are about 1，600.

Animals worldwide are in danger for several reasons.First，…

全世界大多数动物物种的数量都在下降。例如，在20世纪70年代，大约有120万头非洲象，今天只有大约50万头。在20世纪70年代，大约有20万头非洲狮，如今只有不到2.1万头。但也有一些好消息。例如，在20世纪70年代，只有大约1，000只秃鹰，今天超过50，000只。大熊猫的数量看起来也在增加，但增长非常缓慢。在20世纪70年代，野生大熊猫大约有1，000只，如今科学家认为大约有1，600只。

全世界的动物都处于危险之中，原因有几个。首先……

此段落陈列的数据很多，摆事实，引出主题。它虽然没有在引言段中，但它出现在主体段的开头，起到了很好的衔接作用。有些主题句也是出现在这样的位置，并不都是在引言段出现主题句。

这种使用数据的方法通常是在图表作文、商业写作中使用。

*通过下定义引出主题

例：

The Millennial Generation includes people born roughly between the early 1980s and the year 2000 These people are in their teens and twenties today，and they are different from earlier generations in some important ways.^[4]

千禧一代包括大约在20世纪80年代初到2000年之间出生的人。这些人现在都十几岁、二十几岁，他们在一些重要方面与前几代人不同。

首先，此段落界定了什么是“千禧一代”，然后引出主题——他们在一些重要方面与前几代人不同。给读者一个清晰的概念，然后阅读下文就更为清楚。

例：

Integrity，as defined by the dictionary，is “the quality of being honest or having strong moral principles”.People with integrity are generally known to be trustworthy，honest and kind.This is a quality that everyone should strive for.Additionally.everyone should also strive to surround themselves with people who have tris integrity.How can you tell that someone has what is considered true integrity？It something that can be faked，but there are some ways to tell that someone has real integrity and are not just faking it.Here are the main behaviors that reveal if someone has the kind of integrity you want in a friend or coworker.

根据字典的定义，正直是“诚实或有强烈道德原则的品质”。正直的人通常被认为是值得信赖的、诚实的和善良的，这是每个人都应该努力追求的品质。另外，每个人都应该努力让自己周围都是正直的人。你怎么知道一个人是否拥有真正的正直品质。这是可以伪造的，但是有一些方法可以告诉你一个人拥有真正的正直，而不仅仅是伪造。以下是一些主要的行为，它们可以揭示一个人是否拥有你想要的朋友或同事的正直品质。

以上通过字典对“正直”一词下定义，引出“通过行为看正直”的主题。

Exercise

1.Group work：Hold a group discussion about the introductory paragraphs below.

（1）The use of translation apps is becoming increasingly popular.Translation apps have become an essential part of people’s life，especially among people who are learning English and other foreign languages.Just as a coin has two sides，translation apps also have their advantages and disadvantages.

（2）Today in China，many families have only one child.So the children are usually doted upon by all family members.Gradually some of them get used to depending on their parents and family members，as a result they lack the ability to face their lives by themselves.

（3）A famous saying goes：“Seeing is believing” indicating that what you hear may not be reliable，while what you see can be trustworthy.This opinion，however，is still quite partial.

（4）As is known to all，the success of a person needs the right guidance and interest is undoubtedly the best teacher.Even Albert Einstein，the world-renowned physicist，said，“l have no special talents.I am only passionately curious.” So it is high time that people explore and cultivate their own interest.

（5）There is a famous saying goes like that “Knowledge is a treasure，but practice is the key to it.” This saying shows the relationship between knowledge and practice vividly.

（6）Nowadays，there is a growing tendency that college graduates in mounting numbers choose to work as village officials after graduation.People’s attitudes towards this phenomenon differ sharply.Some hold the positive view while others are against it.From my perspective，I believe that it is a wise choice

（7）Nowadays，it’s becoming a trend to pursue as many as possible certificates among colleges students in order to distinguish themselves in the fierce competitive job market

2.Write introductory paragraphs based on the title below.

（1）The Impact of Globalization on Education

（2）Follow the Fashion

（3）Competition and Cooperation

（4）Nature and Nurture

（5）Private Tutoring

二、发展段（正文）

正文是在引言段之后对文章中心思想的叙述或阐述，是文章的中心部分、是核心。作者观点的佐证都在这个段落体现。通常为把主题说得更明白、更清楚，该部分大多由几个段落组成。每个发展段的内容必须与主题一致，为主题服务。段落之间，按逻辑关系使用必要的过渡词、过渡句或过渡段，条理清晰，使整个主体部分读起来自然流畅。

例：

Topic：Some people believe that time spent on television，video and computer games can be beneficial to children.Others believe this has negative effects on a child.Discuss both views and give your own opinion.

范文：In recent years parents have had to make tough decisions about how much time their kids should spend watching TV and playing computer or video games.Some have argued that they are not only a waste of time，but potentially harmful.Others，however，claim that kids should be kids and deserve s entertainment.Personally，I feel that the best approach is moderation.

On the one hand，too much TV and gaming can have a negative influence.Physically hours in front a monitor are harmful on the eyes.And mentally if kids spend too much time living in a virtual world，they may lose the ability to make friends and socialise in a normal way.Moreover，seeing too much violence and questionable content could influence young people’s behaviour，as they are impressionable.

On the other hand，all children need to have fun and play.If students only study，they will surely suffer from mental and emotional pressure and stress.Also，not all content on TV or online is unhealthy；there are lots of educational shows and content that is positive.

Speaking from personal experience，I think the right approach is to have a healthy balance.In this regard，parents have a responsibility to set boundaries and make sure that the content their kids are viewing is appropriate：As well，TV and video games are not the only ways to have fun，so parents should encourage their kids to interact and play with other kids in person too.

In the end，we should follow our common sense.Parents should be firm but fair with letting their kid play online or in front of a TV screen.Most things in moderation are healthy，and TV and video games an no different.

在这篇文章中，中间段落使用了连接段落的连接短语“on the one hand，on the other hand”，鲜明地表明了正反两方面的影响，对文中的主题的关键词“moderate”进行了很好的诠释。最后，作者用了“in the end”说明这是最后的段落。整篇文章通过连接词把作者的观点有效地连在一起。注意谈一个观点时不要跑题。如谈电视和游戏不好的一面时，一方面这个段落只能说不好的一面，主题句就是“too much TV and gaming can have a negative influence.”，后面的句子是围绕这个主题句的叙述部分“a negative influence”展开叙述的。而另一方面是按照电视和游戏给孩子们带来益处这一观点展开叙述说明的。然后是作者的观点，占有一段。

例：

Music Education^[5]

When students and parents are asked to rate subjects according to their importance，the arts are unavoidably at the bottom of the list.Music is nice，people seem to say，but not important.Too often it is viewed as mere entertainment，but certainly not an education priority.This view is shortsighted.In fact.music education is beneficial and important for all students.

Music tells us who we are.Because music is an expression of the beings who create it，it reflects their thinking and values，as well as the social environment it came from.Rock music represents a lifestyle just as surely as does a Schubert song.The jazz influence that George Gershwin and other musicians introduced into their music is obviously American because it came from American musical traditions.Music expresses our character and values.It gives us identity as a society.

Music provides a kind of perception that cannot be acquired any other way.Science can explain how the sun rises and sets.The arts explore the emotive meaning of the same phenomenon.We need every possible way to discover and respond to our world for one simple but powerful reason：No one way can get it all.

The arts are forms of thought as powerful in what they communicate as mathematical and scientific symbols.They are ways we human beings “talk” to each other.They are the language of civilization through which we express our fears，our curiosities，our hungers，our discoveries，our hopes.The arts are ways we give form to our ideas and imagination so that they can be share with others.When we do not give children access to an important way of expressing themselves such as music，we take away from them the meanings that music expresses.

Science and technology do not tell us what it means to be human.The arts do.Music is an important way we express human suffering，celebration，the meaning and value of peace and love.So music education is far more necessary than people seem to realize.

正文段中的第一段即以“Music tells us who we are”为开头的段落；第二段即以“Music provides a kind of perception that cannot be acquired any other way”为开头的段落；第三段即以“The arts are forms of thought as powerful in what they communicate as mathematical and scientific symbols.”为开头的段落。这三个段落都是围绕文章的主题“In fact，music education is beneficial and important for all students”展开的。而正文中的每一段有各自的中心思想，并围绕这个中心展开说明，以此让读者信服。

Exercise

1.Make an analysis of the development of the body part in the essay below.

（1）Among various factors that contribute to today’s longevity of people are three most obvious ones：the improvement of food conditions，the development of modern medical technology，and finally current stability of economy in our country.

Food conditions are better than before and are still being developed with a rapid pace.First of all，foods are more hygienic.People today drink untainted mineral water，sterilized skim milk which are cheaply supplied in supermarkets.Furthermore，foods are more nutrient.Not to mention various carefully designed nutrient products.People can just ignore the possibility of being dystrophic，since they can keep nutrient balance by simply taking a cheap pill of vitamin compound every day.

Another essential improvement that contributes to people’s longevity is swiftly developing medical technology.Development of modern medical technology has always been amazing.Certain diseases such as tuberculosis.pneumonia，and dysentery are now easy to remedy with low expense but in the past，they are all probably lethal ones.The dental technology seems developed little except its exorbitantly charged bill，yet the simplest technology contributes to people’s longevity most.It is not difficult to imagine that if an individual who lived in the past got a toothache，without certain dental care which is common today，he was certainly in an awful prospect：he might even die of a toothache！

Current societal and economic stabilization is also a very indispensable factor.People have less pressure in a more stable society，the less pressure they suffer，the healthier they are.Today’s ideal stabilization even provides people an opportunity to secure their future—buy insurances.Various types of insurances are readily available，which make people feel safe，and have to a large extent reduced people’ anxieties，and therefore indirectly contribute significantly to the longevity of people.^[6]

（2）Having grown up in the country myself，I can say without a doubt that I want my own children to grow up in the city.Life in the city is incomparably better for children than life in the country.The city has better schools，health care，jobs，and more exposure to the outside world.

The two most important things in any child’s life are health and education.In the country.if children get sick，there are no good hospitals to take them to.Families are often so poor that they can’t afford to send all of their children to school，and the schools are usually of low quality anyway.In the cities，on the other hand，health care facilities and schools are of excellent quality

Children from cities also have a much higher chance of getting into excellent universities.City universities have large numbers of spaces reserved for local residents while they have relatively fewer spaces for students from the countryside.If I want my child to have a good chance of getting into a good university，I would raise them in a city.

City salaries are significantly higher than salaries in the country.Jobs in the city are also much easier，on average，than jobs in the country.A worker in the country might spend 14 hours a dan laboring outdoors in the fields and make much less money per month than the city worker who typically works only eight hours a day.I want my child to grow up and get a good，high-paying job A better place to find those jobs is in a city.

Finally，I want my children to grow up into a world that is larger than just their immediate surroundings.In a city they will have a chance to meet people from all over the country and all over the world.They will have chances to absorb history and culture from the cities parks，theatres，and museums.Only in the city will they have the chance to be truly global citizens.

2.Group work：Hold a group discussion about Are parents the best teachers？Make a topic outline according to the thesis statement and conclusion.

Thesis statement：It is not completely true to say that parents are the best teachers.

Body paragraph：_______________________________

Conclusion：In a word，it is rather superficial to simply say that parents are the best teachers.

3.Group work：Hold a group discussion about Why people visit museums？Make a topic outline according to the thesis statement and conclusion.

Thesis statement：For a total outsider with only a short amount of time，museums offer a glimpse into these ways of life through specially designed education，cultural insights，and entertainment.

Body paragraph：_____________________________________

Conclusion：Museums are not only spaces for education and culture，but have also become important entertainment and social venues.

三、结尾段的写作方法

结尾段是一篇文章中不可或缺的。一个好的文章结尾不仅是对文章所述观点的总结，而且可以加深读者对文章的印象以及强化文章所陈述的观点。一篇文章，尤其是叙事性的文章，其结尾往往是文章的点睛之处，或者是整篇文章的升华。在说明文、议论文、描写文中，结尾段对文章的有效总结，可以使文章给读者留下深刻的印象。

结尾段写作要素如下：

●简洁，以简洁的语言重申主题；

●总结前面的论点；

●提出建议，呼吁行动等；

●注意：不需要增加新信息。

*重申、呼应主题

例：

结尾段：Separating language from culture is not only impossible，but it’s counterproductive.Only by digging into the social background and mentality of native speakers can we hope to communicate with them effectively.

此结尾段呼应了引言段汇总的主题 “we ‘should’ use a broader cultural approach when studying a second language ‘must’ if we wish to do it successfully.”，也就是重申了学语言要学文化 “Separating language from culture is not only impossible，but it’s counterproductive.”。

引言段：How to learn a language effectively is not easy to summarize.One popular opinion，however，is the view that language acquisition should also involve a broader understanding of the culture and people who speak it.Considering this claim it is clear that we “should” use a broader cultural approach when studying a second language，and “must” if we wish to do it successfully.^[7]

例：

结尾段：So finally，governments must separate “needs” from “wants：” and state of the art sports facilities are certainly wants，not needs.All societies must make education and medical care a priority because they are the foundation for a good life.If these needs are met，we can then consider other things.

结尾段重申主题“governments must separate ‘needs’ from ‘wants：’ and state of the art sports facilities are certainly wants，not needs.All societies must make education and medical care a priority.”。

引言段：Every government faces a similar dilemma：how should it use its limited resources in the best way.Some people think that large buildings and stadiums are perhaps a waste of money，and that it should be used for more practical things.While every country’s situation varies，generally countries should invest more in things like education and less on eye-catching landmarks.

*总结全文

例：

My working holiday changed my perspective on life.It helped me to grow personally，have fun professionally and realize that I can do and be anything desire.It allowed me to realize that from now on，I will always follow my heart and do what makes me happy.Thank you，Vancouver，for helping me become a better version of myself.^[8]

这篇文章的标题是“How My Working Holiday Changed Me”。第一部分是引言段，由3个自然段构成，交代了为什么我要去另一个国家工作度假。第二部分是正文，分了4个小标题：我成长很快、我工作有乐趣、我旅行、我还想旅行。最后段落用了一个小标题：谢谢，打工度假。结论段是对正文的叙述的总结，用简洁的语言概括了正文的内容。

例：

It is only a short distance along the Haihe River from that temple to the Shangri-La Hotel.There I found the recent cultural performances centering around Confucius quite stimulating.Watching the rituals unfold had me thinking again of China，of no matter how long we stay here there is always something new to discover.There is so much to revisit to gradually put together a picture of what I feel constitutes China.including its fascinating Confucian heritage.^[9]

此文作者讲述了他经历和了解的中国各地关于孔子的一些庙宇和学校，其把所见所闻拼成了一幅大图景，让人更宏观地认识中国，包括中国让人着迷的儒家文化。

*提出建议，呼吁行动

例：

结尾段：To avoid crisis in the future，we should take some actions.People should be edu-

cated not to squander energy resources with no thought for the future.Family planning should be carried out in a down-to-earth way to control the population expansion.Some new experiments should be conducted to find new energy resources as soon as possible.

这篇短文的主题是能源危机，造成能源危机的是人口的增长和能源的过度使用。

例：

结尾段：Since noise produced as much interference to us，I suggested that some regulations should be laid down and enforced to reduce noise made by traffic vehicles in streets and by machines in factories.

这是一篇讨论噪音污染问题的文章，噪音影响人们的健康和工作，为此要采取措施。

在叙述文和议论文中，有的结论段会点出作者的观点，而在文章中大多是举例分析、谈现象。

*点明作者的观点

例：

And there it is—25 years from now，we’ll be presented with the bill for my mother-in-law’s enormous sacrifices.“Oh no，” I answered steadily.“After getting away with not changing very many for his daughter，when the time comes to change my mother-in-law’s diapers，it will most definitely be her son’s job！”^[10]

这篇文章讲述的是文化差异。一位加拿大妻子希望自己的中国丈夫能够与她一起照看孩子，可是婆婆来帮助照看孩子，甚至做家务，她牺牲了对公公和丈夫的照看以及工作，全心全意来帮助自己的儿子。加拿大妻子不得其解，最后她说她以后不能照看年迈的婆婆。这种结尾段来表明作者的观点经常出现在叙述文中。

例：

So，what should parents do？We think it’s wise to be patient with emerging adults，as long as they seem to have a Plan with a capital P and are trying to move it along.Try to put aside the timetable that applied decades ago and respect the longer road to adulthood they are traveling today.Encourage them and provide support when they seem open to it，but learn when to step back and let them make their way— including their mistakes — on their own.It’s a delicate balance.

Above all，parents，it can help to realize that the winding road to adulthood is the new normal.You maybe relieved to learn that nearly everyone grows out of emerging adulthood and，by about age 30，takes on the roles of young adulthood — marriage，parenthood and a stable job.Seeing emerging adulthood as a normal stage of life today can help ease our anxiety and maybe even allow us to celebrate our emerging adults’ energy，optimism and appetite for life.^[11]

这篇文章谈的是“是不是当今的青春年华从20岁变成30岁了？”（Is 30 the New 20 for Young Adults？）如今，年轻人想要独立需要一段较长的时间，作者给他们的父母提出了建议，由此点明自己的观点。

Exercise

Write a conclusion in each passage.

Passage 1

I believe that one of the most important developments in transportation has been the development of international transport.Since this style of transportation appeared in the1950s，it has had some revolutionary effects.Because of the high speeds and the relatively low costs of this type of travel，it has changed the way people look at the world.

The most obviously important characteristic of jet travel is the high speed involved.A hundred years ago，it took weeks to cross the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans by ship.Today，those same trips can be completed in a matter of hours.One can attend a meeting in Paris and have dinner in New York the same day.These amazing speeds have changed people’s concepts of space.Today the world is much smaller than it was in the past.

Another important aspect of jet travel is its relatively low cost.An international journey one hundred years ago was extremely expensive.Only wealthy people could afford to travel comfortably，in first class.Poor people had to save for years to purchase a ticket，and the conditions in which they traveled were not very good.Today it is possible for more and more people in every country to travel in comfort.

Thus it is possible for businessmen to do business all over the world，for students to attend universities in other countries，and for tourists to take vacations anywhere in the world.

In conclusion，______________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Passage 2

Nowadays，we have many conveniences in our society which have been brought about through technology and science.However，these same advancements in technology and and science have caused some very dangerous problems.These problems will not go away easily because people do not want to give up the conveniences of a modern lifestyle.The most critical problems which should be dealt with immediately are those of pollution.

Pollution caused by chemicals is a very serious problem because it causes the loss of the ozone layer.Without our zone，not only we ourselves but all plant and animal life are

exposed to dangerous rays from the sun.Aerosol cans emit chemicals which break down our ozone layer.Refrigeration and air-conditioning systems and cars also have dangerous emissions.

Perhaps the most serious threat to the planet is the warming of the earth’s atmosphere，primarily through carbon dioxide emissions.Many scientists think that the warming could be sufficient to melt the polar ice caps，thus raising the sea levels.This would mean that many parts of the world would be submerged below sea level.

There are other problems caused by pollution.Factories which make our modern conveniences emit poisonous gases onto the air we breathe.The chemicals we use for cleaning and wastes from factories go into our water systems and pollute the water we drink and the fish we eat.They also kill much of the wildlife we depend on for food.Some of the pesticides we have sprayed on our crops have been found to be dangerous.This kind of pollution may stay in the ground for a very long period of time.

In conclusion，______________________________________________________________________________________________________.^[12]

Passage 3

For centuries，the roles of women and men in any particular country remained unchanged.However，modern technology has spread into most societies.This has made it possible for men and women to enter into new roles.Some of these changes in roles have been very beneficial.

The role of women has shifted from the homemaker/ nurturer to the outside working world.This change has widened women’s point of view.Women can now better understand men and the problems they face every day in their jobs.Because women are more knowledgeable about the world，they are now more prepared to take on decision-making roles.Their solutions to problems may be very different from those of men.

Men’s roles have changed dramatically as well.It is no longer a man’s world.Husbands find that with their wives helping to support the family，they are helping to do many chores that were not considered manly before.However，in activities such as taking care of children，men have learned more nurturing habits.Men also no longer view women as helpless，mindless grown children，but as adults with decision-making abilities.Such experiences have helped men ac- quire a different，more positive attitude toward women and children.

In conclusion，_______________________________________________________________________________________________________.^[13]