附录2 七个“稻草人”
附录2 七个“稻草人”
在学术辩论中,学者们经常倾向于攻击“稻草人”,而不是对一个已经阐明的论点提出异议。
这个模式很简单:树立一个“稻草人”,把它点燃,然后声称已经驳斥了这个论点。
为了批驳2015年9月《大西洋月刊》的一篇预述本书观点的文章,批评人士一再将同样的七个“稻草人”烧成灰烬。
1.必然性:修昔底德陷阱声称,崛起国和守成国之间的战争是不可避免的。
正如《大西洋月刊》那篇文章及本书所描述的,修昔底德陷阱并没有宣称战争是不可避免的。事实上,在案例文件(附录1)的16个案例中,有4个案例没有发生战争。此外,正如我所指出的那样,即使是在修昔底德的《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》中,他对“不可避免”这个词的使用也显然是一种夸张的说法。
2.临界点、绊脚线或转折点:在权力过渡期间,双方到达了一个特定的临界点却没有引发战争——所以修昔底德是错误的。
修昔底德陷阱并没有假设战争最有可能发生的时刻。修昔底德式的动态在一方势力崛起过程中出现,在双方实力旗鼓相当时出现,在一方力量超过另一方之后也会出现。
3.选择偏差:作者只是为了符合修昔底德陷阱的结论而精心挑选案例,他只选择了导致战争的案例。
案例文件包含了我们在过去几年里所能找到的所有实例,在这些例子中,一个主要的崛起国威胁要取代现有的守成国。因为案例文件包括整个领域的所有案例(相对于代表性的样本),所以它不受选择偏差的影响。关于修昔底德陷阱方法论的详细讨论,请参见http://belfercenter.org/thucydide/thucydides-trap-methodology。
4.缺少的案例:修昔底德陷阱的案例文件是不全面的。
修昔底德陷阱的案例文件是开放的。自从我在2015年的《大西洋月刊》上发表了这篇文章之后,修昔底德陷阱项目的网站邀请读者提出更多的案例,这些案例可以来自世界各地、可以来自不太重要的国家,可以来自不同的时代。就这次调查而言,越多的案例越好,因为额外的案例可以为崛起国和守成国的基本动态提供更多的见解。读者可以访问http://www.belfercent-er.org/thucyditraptrap/case-file以提供案例。
5.规模过小的样本:修昔底德陷阱的案例文件提供的资料太少,不足以支持有关法律或规律的主张,或者供社会科学家研究使用。
同意。但本研究的目的是探索一种现象,而不是提出什么金规铁律或是为统计学家创建一个数据集。
6.但是……:案例文件中的事件和问题要比文章所述复杂得多。
当然,它们总是这样。
7.原创性:修昔底德陷阱的概念不是原创的。
事实上,它之所以被称为修昔底德陷阱,应该表明了我们同意这种说法。正如网站上所指出的,自修昔底德之后,其他学者也为我们理解霸权挑战作出了贡献。
DESTINED FOR WAR
Copyright©2017 by Graham Allison
This edition arranged with InkWell Management, LLC.
Through Andrew Nurnberg Associates International Limited
Simplified Chinese translation copyright©2019 by Shanghai People's
Publishing House
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
[1]《习近平:中国崛起应避免陷“修昔底德陷阱”》,中国网,https://mili-tary.china.com/important/11132797/20140124/18313947.html?bsh_bid=343084324532721748,最后访问时间2018年10月20日。
[2]Graham Allison,“The Thucydides Trap:Are the U.S.and China Headed for War?”,September 23,2015,https://www.theatlantic.com/international/ar-chive/2015/09/united-states-china-war-thucydides-trap/406756/,最后访问时间2018年10月19日。
[3]参阅Mary Buffett,“Is The Thucydides Trap for the U.S.and China?A Response to Graham Allison,”Huffpost, September 29,2015,https://www.huffingtonpost.com/mary-buffett/is-the-thucydides-trap-fo_b_8217484.html,最后访问时间2018年10月20日。
[4]例如,周方舟:《中美已经掉入“修昔底德陷阱”:中国对美强势挑战与特朗普的超强回应》,2018年3月23日,https://www.sohu.com/a/226199326_313170,最后访问时间2018年10月20日。
[5]本句参考的是商务印书馆1985年出版的《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》(由谢德风翻译)一书的译文。——译者注
[6]啄食顺序(pecking order),指群居动物通过争斗获取优先权和较高地位等级的自然现象。——译者注
[7]Henry Kissinger, foreword to Lee Kuan Yew:The Grand Master's In-sights on China, the United States, and the World(Cambridge, MA:MIT Press,2013),ix.
[8]1976年起至其辞世,李光耀曾33次出访中国;从1990年至2011年,约有22000名中国官员访问新加坡并学习其国内治理经验。Chris Buckley,“In Lee Kuan Yew, China Saw a Leader to Emulate,”New York Times, March 23,2015,http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/03/23/in-lee-kuan-yew-china-saw-a-leader-to-emulate.
[9]Graham Allison, Robert D.Blackwill, and Ali Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew:The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and the World(Cam-bridge, MA:MIT Press,2013),42.
[10]参见World Bank,“Merchandise Imports(Current US$)”,http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TM.VAL.MRCH.CD.WT?locations=CN;World Bank,“Merchandise Exports(Current US$)”,http://data.worldbank.org/indi-cator/TX.VAL.MRCH.CD.WT?locations=CN。
[11]事实上中国每两年的国内生产总值增量相当于印度的国内生产总值总量。例如,2012年中国的国内生产总值为8.6万亿美元,2014年达到10.6万亿美元。在这两年内,中国国内生产总值增长了近2万亿美元。与此同时,2012年印度的国内生产总值是1.8万亿美元,2013年是1.9万亿美元,2014年是2万亿美元。国内生产总值的数据(按当期[或者同期]元计价)来自国际货币基金组织的《世界经济展望》数据库,2016年10月,http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/index.aspx。
[12]根据经济史学家安格斯·麦迪森(Angus Maddison)对国内生产总值增长的历史数据进行计算。“GDP Levels in Western Offshoots,1500—1899,”in Angus Maddison, The World Economy:Historical Statistics(Paris:OECD Pub-lishing,2006),462—463。
[13]有许多例子能够证明生产力的差距。英国使用珍妮纺纱机使得纱线生产率提高了66倍,这是中国同期未能采用的一个关键创新点。Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress(New York:Oxford University Press,1990),221.同期,荷兰的纺织品生产力可与英国相提并论,比中国最发达的长江三角洲地区的生产率高出6倍。Bozhong Li and Jan Luiten van Zanden,“Before the Great Divergence?Comparing the Yang-zi Delta and the Netherlands at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century,”Journal of Economic History 72,no.4(December 2012),972.此外,1800年,西方国家的战争动员力比东方国家高出5倍,因此伊恩·莫里斯(Ian Morris)认为“这与英国军队在19世纪40年代如此轻易地击败中国有很大关系”。Ian Morris, Why the West Rules—for Now(New York:Farrar, Straus and Giroux,2010),496,634—635.
[14]Hillary Clinton,“America's Pacific Century,”Foreign Policy, October 11,2011,http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/americas-pacific-century.
[15]“Remarks by President Obama to the Australian Parliament,”November 17,2011,https://obamawhitehouse. archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/11/17/remarks-president-obama-australian-parliament.
[16]“A Dangerous Modesty,”Economist, June 6,2015,http://www. economist.com/news/briefing/21653617-america-has-learnt-hard-way-it-cannot-fix-problems-middle-east-barack.
[17]Yi Wen, The Making of an Economic Superpower:Unlocking China's Se-cret of Rapid Industrialization(Hackensack, NJ:World Scientific Publishing,2016),2.
[18]参见“International Car Sales Outlook,”in Improving Consumer Funda-mentals Drive Sales Acceleration and Broaden Gains Beyond Autos, Scotiabank Global Auto Report, September 29,2016,http://www.gbm.scotiabank.com/English/bns_econ/bns_auto.pdf。
[19]参见“As China's Smartphone Market Matures, Higher-Priced Handsets Are on the Rise,”Wall Street Journal, April 29,2016,http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2016/04/29/as-chinas-smartphone-market-matures-higher-priced-handsets-are-on-the-rise/;Serge Hoffmann and Bruno Lannes,“China's E-com-merce Prize,”Bain&Company,2013,http://www.bain.com/Images/BAIN_BRIEF_Chinas_e-commerce_prize.pdf;Euan McKirdy,“China's Online Users More Than Double Entire U.S.Population,”CNN, February 4,2015,http://www.cnn.com/2015/02/03/world/china-internet-growth-2014/。
[20]Candace Dunn,“China Is Now the World's Largest Net Importer of Pe-troleum and Other Liquid Fuels,”US Energy Information Administration, March 24,2014,http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=15531;Enerda-ta,“Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2016,”https://yearbook.enerdata.net/;Richard Martin,“China Is on an Epic Solar Power Binge,”MIT Technolo-gy Review, March 22,2016,https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601093/china-is-on-an-epic-solar-power-binge/.
[21]Stephen Roach,“Why China Is Central to Global Growth,”World Eco-nomic Forum, September 2,2016,https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/09/why-china-is-central-to-global-growth.
[22]Brett Arends,“It's Official:America Is Now No.2,”Market Watch, December 4,2014,http://www.marketwatch.com/story/its-official-america-is-now-no-2-2014-12-04.
[23]Chris Giles,“The New World Economy in Four Charts,”Alphaville Blog, Financial Times, October 7,2014,http://ftalphaville.ft.com/2014/10/07/1998332/moneysupply-the-new-world-economy-in-four-charts/.
[24]参见PPP description in GDP methodology in“Definitions and Notes,”CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact-book/docs/notesanddefs.html;Tim Callen,“PPP Versus the Market:Which Weight Matters?”Finance and Development 44,no.1(March 2007),http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2007/03/basics.htm。
[25]International Monetary Fund,“World Economic Outlook Database.”
[26]例如,参见Tim Worstall,“China's Now the World Number One Economy and It Doesn't Matter a Darn,”Forbes, December 7,2014,http://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2014/12/07/chinas-now-the-world-num-ber-one-economy-and-it-doesnt-matter-a-darn/;Jeffrey Frankel,“Sorry, but A-merica Is Still No.1,Even If China Is Bigger,”Market Watch, December 5,2014,http://www.marketwatch.com/story/sorry-but-america-is-still-no-1-2014-12-04。
[27]费希尔继续说:“但我们必须认识到,这只是一个初步的估计。特别是对于国际贸易的商品,例如石油,市场汇率提供了一个更好的衡量标准。此外,更重要的是,除了基本的经济能力之外,还有许多其他因素影响着一个国家的军事潜力,包括其对公民征税的政治能力,以及为加强其国家安全态势而投入资源的政治能力。”经济学家查尔斯·金德尔伯格(Charles Kindleberger)强调了这一点,他写道:“能否支付赔偿将取决于赔偿数额是否在相当大的范围内,除了使用暴力外,还取决于有关国家是否为此作出了一致并坚定的努力。这不是经济学家容易接受的结论。”参见Charles Kindleberger, Manias, Panics, and Crashes(New York:Wiley Investment Classics,2005),225—226。
[28]International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2016(New York:Routledge,2016),495.
[29]“放缓”一词是检索Factiva数据库中《纽约时报》《华尔街日报》和《金融时报》自2013年10月25日到2016年10月25日标题所得,检索标题的关键词是:“中国”(China)+“增长”(growth)或者“GDP”或者“经济”(economy)。
[30]国内生产总值增长数据来自国际货币基金组织。这一时期自大衰退(Great Recession)以来被定义为2010年至2016年。2016年的数据是国际货币基金组织提交给世界经济数据库的2016年10月最新估值。
[31]中国经济占世界经济增长的百分比是通过“国内生产总值和购买力平价”(以2011年国际元[International dollar]基准)计算的,数据来自世界银行的世界发展指数。亦可参见David Harrison,“The U.S.May Not Be an Engine of the World Economy for Long,”Wall Street Journal, March 8,2016,blogs.wsj.com/economics/2016/03/08/the-u-s-may-be-an-engine-of-the-world-economy-but-perhaps-not-for-long。哈里森(Harrison)强调,在2013年“中国仅凭一己之力就几乎实现世界经济增长的三分之一”。
[32]参见World Bank,“Poverty Headcount Ratio at$1.90 a Day(2011 PPP)(%of Population),”accessed November 19,2016,http://data.world-bank.org/topic/poverty?locations=CN。
[33]“Beijing to Cut Number of New Cars,”Xinhua, October 25,2016,ht-tp://www. globaltimes.cn/content/1013607.shtml;Hu Shuli, Wang Shuo, and Huang Shan,“Kissinger:China, U.S.Must‘Lead in Cooperation',”Caixin, March 23,2015,http://english.caixin.com/2015-03-23/100793753.html.
[34]Kevin Rudd,“The West Isn't Ready for the Rise of China,”New Statesman, July 16,2012,http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/internation-al-politics/2012/07/kevin-rudd-west-isnt-ready-rise-china.
[35]Evan Osnos, Age of Ambition:Chasing Fortune, Truth, and Faith in the New China(New York:Farrar, Straus and Giroux,2014),25.
[36]仅在2011年至2013年间,中国生产的水泥量就超过了美国在整个20世纪的生产量。参见Jamil Anderlini,“Property Sector Slowdown Adds to China Fears,”Financial Times, May 13,2014,https://www.ft.com/content/4f74c94a-da77-11e3-8273-00144feabdc0;参见Ana Swanson,“How China Used More Ce-ment in 3 Years than the U.S.Did in the Entire 20th Century,”Wonkblog, Washington Post, March 24,2015,https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/03/24/how-china-used-more-cement-in-3-years-than-the-u-s-did-in-the-entire-20th-century/。
[37]Eoghan Macguire,“The Chinese Firm That Can Build a Skyscraper in a Matter of Weeks,”CNN, June 26,2015,http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/26/asia/china-skyscraper-prefabricated.
[38]Economist Intelligence Unit,“Building Rome in a Day:The Sustain-ability of China's Housing Boom”(2011),2,www.eiu.com/Handlers/Whitepa-per-Handler.ashx?fi=Building_Rome_in_a_day_WEB_Updated.pdf.
[39]Thomas Friedman and Michael Mandelbaum, That Used to Be Us:How America Fell Behind in the World It Invented and How We Can Come Back(New York:Macmillan,2012),3—4.
[40]参见“China for a Day(but Not for Two),”in Thomas Friedman, Hot, Flat, and Crowded:Why We Need a Green Revolution—and How It Can Renew America(New York:Picador,2009),429—455。
[41]“Two Days,”Popular Mechanics, November 20,2015,http://www. popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/a18277/beijing-overpass-re-placed-in-less-than-two-days/.
[42]George Fortier and Yi Wen,“The Visible Hand:The Role of Govern-ment in China's Long-Awaited Industrial Revolution,”working paper, Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis, August 2016,215,https://research.stlouisfed.org/wp/more/2016-016.
[43]Ibid.
[44]参见Virginia Postrel,“California Hits the Brakes on High-Speed Rail Fiasco,”Bloomberg, June 28,2016,https://www.bloomberg.com/view/arti-cles/2016-06-28/california-hits-the-brakes-on-high-speed-rail-fiasco;“Taxpayers Could Pay Dearly for California's High-Speed-Train Dreams,”Economist, March 27,2016,http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21695237-taxpayers-could-pay-dearly-californias-high-speed-dreams-biting-bullet。
[45]Lu Bingyang and Ma Feng,“China to Build Out 45000 km High-Speed Rail Network,”Caixin, July 21,2016,http://english.caixin.com/2016-07-21/100968874.html.
[46]参见World Bank,“Poverty Headcount Ratio at$1.90 a Day,”http://data.worldbank.org/topic/poverty?locations=CN。
[47]根据《世界经济展望》中国际货币基金组织的最新估计,中国人均GDP在2015年是8149美元,2016年估值为8261美元。
[48]World Bank,“World Bank Group President Says China Offers Lessons in Helping the World Overcome Poverty,”September 15,2010,http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/09/15/world-bank-group-president-says-china-offers-lessons-helping-world-overcome-poverty.
[49]关于预期寿命增长,参见Linda Benson, China Since 1949,3rd ed.(New York:Routledge,2016),28;现有数据(1960—2014)参见“Life Expect-ancy at Birth, Total(Years),”World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indica-tor/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=CN。关于识字率,参见Ted Plafker,“China's Long-but Uneven-March to Literacy,”International Herald Tribune, February 12,2001,http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/12/news/chinas-long-but-uneven-march-to-literacy.html;现有数据(1982—2015)参见“Adult Literacy Rate, Population 15+Years, Both Sexes(%),”World Bank, http://data.world-bank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=CN。
[50]《经济学人》援引波士顿咨询集团的研究指出,到2020年,亚洲的财富预计将达到75万亿美元,而北美的财富将达到76万亿美元。正如波士顿咨询集团所解释的那样:“美国仍将是世界上最富裕的国家,尽管预计在2020年后,亚太地区(包括日本)将超过北美。”参见“The Wealth of Nations,”Econ-omist, June 17,2015,http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2015/06/asia-pacific-wealthier-europe;“Global Wealth 2016:Navigating the New Cli-ent Landscape,”Boston Consulting Group, June 2016,https://www.bcgper-spectives.com/content/articles/financial-institutions-consumer-insight-global-wealth-2016/?chapter=2。
[51]参见Robert Frank,“China Has More Billionaires Than US:Report,”CNBC, February 24,2016,http://www.cnbc.com/2016/02/24/china-has-more-billionaires-than-us-report.html;UBS/PwC,“Billionaires Report,2016,”May 2016,12,http://uhnw-greatwealth.ubs.com/billionaires/billionaires-report-2016/。该报告发现在2015年,中国创造了80个十亿级别的富翁,相当于每周创造了大约1.5个。
[52]Christopher Horton,“When It Comes to Luxury, China Still Leads,”New York Times, April 5,2016,http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/05/fash-ion/china-luxury-goods-retail.html.
[53]STEM是科学(Science)、技术(Technology)、工程(Engineering)和数学(Mathematics)四个词的首字母缩写。——译者注
[54]在由康奈尔大学和世界知识产权组织联合发布的“2016年全球创新指数”中,中国的中小学教育排名第4位,美国排名第39位。
[55]在35个经合组织国家中,美国在2015年排名第31。然而,值得注意的是,只有四个中国省份参加了2015年的评估,而美国的分数反映的是全国的情况。OECD, PISA 2015 Results, vol.1:Excellence and Equity in Education(Paris:OECD Publishing,2016).
[56]然而,这项初步研究还发现,随着美国学生的追赶,中国学生的原地踏步,中国学生在大学期间失去了这种批判性思维的优势。该研究部分是基于对中国11所大学2700名中国学生的考试。参见Clifton B.Parker,“Incentives Key to China's Effort to Upgrade Higher Education, Stanford Expert Says,”Stan-ford News, August 18,2016,http://news.stanford.edu/2016/08/18/incentives-key-to-chinas-effort-upgrade-higher-education/。
[57]“Best Global Universities for Engineering,”U. S.News and World Re-port, http://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/engineering?int=994b08.
[58]Te-Ping Chen and Miriam Jordan,“Why So Many Chinese Students Come to the U.S.,”Wall Street Journal, May 1,2016,http://www.wsj.com/articles/why-so-many-chinese-students-come-to-the-u-s-1462123552.
[59]National Science Board,“Science and Engineering Indicators,2016”(Arlington, VA:National Science Foundation,2016),https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/#/report.
[60]Richard Waters and Tim Bradshaw,“Rise of the Robots Is Sparking an Investment Boom,”Financial Times, May 3,2016,http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/5a352264-0e26-11e6-ad80-67655613c2d6.html;“World Record:248000 In-dustrial Robots Revolutionizing the World Economy,”International Federation of Robotics, June 22,2016,http://www.ifr.org/news/ifr-press-release/world-re-cord-816/.
[61]National Science Board,“Science and Engineering Indicators,2016.”
[62]中国占全球专利申请量的38%,相当于紧随其后的美、日、韩三国的总和。参见“World Intellectual Property Indicators 2016,”World Intellectual Property Organization(2016)7,21,http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_941_2016.pdf。
[63]尽管美国2012年支出3970亿美元,中国仅支出2570亿美元,但中国的支出预计将在2024年猛增至6000亿美元,而美国的支出仍将低于5000亿美元。参见“China Headed to Overtake EU, US in Science&Technology Spending, OECD Says,”Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop-ment, November 12,2014,http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/china-headed-to-overtake-eu-us-in-science-technology-spending.htm。
[64]Norman R.Augustine et al.,Restoring the Foundation:The Vital Role of Research in Preserving the American Dream(Cambridge, MA:American A-cademy of Arts and Sciences,2014),7.
[65]Thomas Kalil and Jason Miller,“Advancing U.S.Leadership in High-Performance Computing,”the White House, July 29,2015,https://obam-awhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/07/29/advancing-us-leadership-high-per-formance-computing.
[66]“New Chinese Supercomputer Named World's Fastest System on Latest Top 500 List,”Top 500,June 20,2016,https://www. top500.org/news/new-chinese-supercomputer-named-worlds-fastest-system-on-latest-top500-list/;James Vincent,“Chinese Supercomputer Is the World's Fastest-and Without Using US Chips,”The Verge, June 20,2016,http://www.theverge.com/2016/6/20/11975356/chinese-supercomputer-worlds-fastes-taihulight.
[67]参见Steven Mufson,“Energy Secretary Is Urged to End U.S.Nuclear Fuel Program at Savannah River,”Washington Post, September 9,2015,https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/energy-secretary-is-urged-to-end-us-nuclear-fuel-program-at-savannah-river/2015/09/09/bc6103b4-5705-11e5-abe9-27d53f250b11_story. html;Darren Samuelsohn,“Billions Over Budg-et.Two Years After Deadline.What's Gone Wrong for the‘Clean Coal'Project That's Supposed to Save an Industry?”Politico, May 26,2015,http://www.po-litico.com/agenda/story/2015/05/billion-dollar-kemper-clean-coal-energy-project-000015.
[68]中国也一直在增强其核武库。在1964年成为核大国后的几十年里,北京一直保留着使用小型发射井进行发射的洲际弹道导弹,这使它很容易受到对手的首轮打击。自20世纪90年代中期以来,中国一直在部署更有生存能力的核力量,最近的举措是布置具备公路机动能力和潜射式的弹道导弹。其结果是,美国被迫接受中美之间的“相互确保摧毁”机制,类似于冷战期间与苏联达成的条件。这反映在2010年美国《核态势评估》(Nuclear Posture Re-view)的一份声明中。该声明称,美国不会采取任何可能对“我们与俄罗斯或中国的核关系稳定”产生负面影响的行动。
[69]自1988年以来,中国的军费开支平均占国内生产总值的2.01%,而美国为3.9%。参见World Bank,“Military Expenditure(%of GDP),”http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS。
[70]回想一下“72”法则:将72除以年增长率,以确定需要多长时间才能翻一番。
[71]International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2016(New York:Routledge,2016),19.
[72]Eric Heginbotham et al.,The U.S.-China Military Scorecard:Forces, Geography, and the Evolving Balance of Power,1996—2017(Santa Monica, CA:RAND Corporation,2015),xxxi, xxix.
[73]2012年5月在北京举行的中美战略与经济对话会中,克林顿对记者表示:“我们非常乐观地看待未来。我们相信,无论是帝国主义的遗产、冷战的遗产,还是均势的政治,我们都无法以旧的眼光看待世界。零和思想会导致负和结果。因此,我们正在努力建立一种具有韧性的关系,使我们两国在不存在不健康竞争、竞争或冲突的情况下实现繁荣发展,同时履行我们的国家责任、地区责任和全球责任。”参见“Remarks at the Strategic and Economic Dialogue U.S.Press Conference,”US Department of State, May 4,2012,https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2012/05/189315.htm。
[74]作者对李光耀的采访,2011年12月2日。
[75]Robert Blackwill and Jennifer Harris, War by Other Means:Geoeconom-ics and Statecraft(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,2016),11.
[76]Association of Southeast Asian Nations,“External Trade Statistics,”June 10,2016,http://asean.org/?static_post=external-trade-statistics-3;Shawn Donnan,“China Manoeuvres to Fill US Free-Trade Role,”Financial Times, No-vember 21,2016,https://www.ft.com/content/c3840120-aee1-11e6-a37c-f4a01f1b0fa1.
[77]Henry Kissinger, On China(New York:Penguin Books,2012),28.
[78]James Kynge,“China Becomes Global Leader in Development Fi-nance,”Financial Times, May 17,2016,https://www.ft.com/content/b995cc7a-1c33-11e6-a7bc-ee846770ec15.
[79]2014年底,中国国家开发银行和中国进出口银行在国际上的未偿贷款为6840亿美元,略低于世界银行、亚洲开发银行、美洲开发银行、欧洲投资银行、欧洲复兴开发银行和非洲开发银行7000亿美元的未偿贷款总额。此外,中国还提供了约1160亿美元的双边和区域发展融资,使其国际发展融资总额大大高于其他多边银行。参见Kevin Gallagher, Rohini Kamal, Yong-zhong Wang, and Yanning Chen,“Fueling Growth and Financing Risk:The Benefits and Risks of China's Development Finance in the Global Energy Sector,”working paper, Boston University Global Economic Governance Initiative, May 2016,3—7,http://www.bu.edu/pardeeschool/research/gegi/program-area/chi-na-and-global-development-banking/fueling-growth-and-financing-risk/。
[80]参见“Our Bulldozers, Our Rules,”Economist, July 2,2016,http://www.economist.com/news/china/21701505-chinas-foreign-policy-could-reshape-good-part-world-economy-our-bulldozers-our-rules;Enda Cur ran,“China's Mar-shall Plan,”Bloomberg, August 7,2016,www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-08-07/china-s-marshall-plan。
[81]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,6—7.
[82]《瑞普·凡·温克尔》(Rip van Winkle),美国小说家华盛顿·欧文所写的短篇小说,书名也是主角的名字。——译者注
[83]在德文原文中,利奥波德·冯·兰克这个词语的表述是“wie es eigentlich gewesen”。
[84]Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War,1.23.6.除一些地方,如这个注释,我将其改为更符合现代英语的句法外,修昔底德的《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》的引文都出自斯特拉斯勒(Strassler)的译本,该译本以克劳利(Crawley)编写的书为蓝本。引文注释中的三个数字分别对应:书名、章节和行数。参见Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, ed.Robert B.Strassler, trans.Richard Crawley(New York:Free Press,1996)。
[85]Ibid.,1.23.6.对于希腊词汇anankasai及其在修昔底德著作中的含义,更加深入的讨论请参见G.E.M.de Ste.Croix, The Origins of the Peloponnesian War(London:Gerald Duckworth&Company,1972),51—63。
[86]《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》第一卷分析了导向战争的路径。余下的七卷则记录了战争本身。
[87]黑劳士(Helots)是指斯巴达的国有奴隶,主要由斯巴达征服的拉哥尼亚(Laconia)和美塞尼亚(Messenia)等城邦原有住民构成。——译者注
[88]Herodotus, Histories,9.10.1.
[89]Plutarch, Moralia,241.
[90]Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War,2.13.6.
[91]Ibid.,1.76.2.
[92]Ibid.,1.118.2.
[93]Ibid.,1.70.2.
[94]Ibid.,1.76.2.
[95]Paul Rahe, The Grand Strategy of Classical Sparta:The Persian Chal-lenge(New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,2015),327—336.
[96]蔚蓝海岸,现位于法国东南地中海沿岸。——译者注
[97]Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War,1.25.4.修昔底德告诉我们,这场冲突源自自尊心受到伤害。在公共献祭典礼中,科西拉人否认科林斯人具有优先权,科林斯人因此感到他们被对方蔑视了。
[98]Ibid.,1.84.4.
[99]Ibid.,1.86.2.
[100]Ibid.,1.69.1—4.
[101]Ibid.,1.88.1.摘自雷克斯·沃纳(Rex Warner)1972年的译本。Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, ed.M.I.Finley, trans.Res Warner(New York:Penguin,1954),55.
[102]雅典甚至还制定了一种制度——放逐——来驱逐掌握太多权力的领导者。
[103]Donald Kagan, The Peloponnesian War(New York:Penguin,2004),32—34.
[104]原文the Mede指米堤亚人,是生活在伊朗高原的一个民族,在公元前7世纪曾统治伊朗西部等广大地区,但在公元前6世纪被居鲁士所领导的波斯所灭,最终成为波斯帝国的一部分。该句中雅典人所说的是指在公元前5世纪波斯希腊战争中作为希腊城邦联军的雅典打败对手波斯人,这里的米堤亚人代指波斯人。——译者注
[105]Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War,5.105.2.
[106]在现代学者中,唐纳德·卡根(Donald Kagan)对此的解释最有见地。参见Donald Kagan, On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace(New York:Doubleday,1995);Donald Kagan,“Our Interests and Our Honor,”Com-mentary, April 1997,https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/our-in-terests-and-our-honor/。
[107]Richard Neustadt, Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents:The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan(New York:Free Press,1990),xix.
[108]作为哈佛大学贝尔弗研究中心应用历史项目的一部分,完整的修昔底德陷阱案例档案包含在附录1中。
[109]在我们的研究里,独立变量是在守成国和可以将其取代的崛起国之间力量平衡(力量的关联性)的快速变化。支配/主导/领导地位可以是对某一地理区域(例如,16世纪哈布斯堡王朝所在的欧洲大陆)或是某一具体领域(例如19世纪英国对于海洋的控制)而言。这项研究的因变量是战争,依据战争相关性项目的标准定义战争,即每年至少造成1000人死亡的军事冲突。为了确定并总结这些案例,我们采用主流的历史记录,特别是,克服对事件进行自己独创性或个人怪异的解读。在这一项目中,我们试图囊括公元1500年以来守成国受到崛起国挑战的所有案例。用技术性的话来说,我们找的不是一个代表性的样本,而是所有个案。因此,正如《牛津政治学方法手册》所言:“如果比较历史研究者们选择了所有个案,则选择偏差这样的标准问题就不会发生。”详细的方法论解释参见http://belfercenter.org/thucydides-trap/thucydides-trap-methodology。
[110]US Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States and Japan,1931—1941,vol.2(Washington, DC:US Government Printing Office,1943),780.
[111]Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire:Domestic Politics and International Ambi-tion(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1993),126.
[112]Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers:Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000(New York:Random House,1987),334.
[113]Charles Maechling,“Pearl Harbor:The First Energy War,”History To-day 50,no.12(December 2000),47.
[114]Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, The War Trap(New Haven, CT:Yale Univer-sity Press,1987),85.
[115]See Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor:Warning and Decision(Palo Al-to, CA:Stanford University Press,1962);Gordon W.Prange, Pearl Harbor:The Verdict of History(New York:McGraw Hill,1986).
[116]Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor:The Coming of the War Between the United States and Japan(New York:Atheneum,1965),248.
[117]在明治维新中,天皇恢复了国家最高权威地位。
[118]B.R.Mitchell, International Historical Statistics:Africa, Asia and Oceania,1750—1993(New York:Macmillan,2003),1025.
[119]Akira Iriye,“Japan's Drive to Great-Power Status,”in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol.5:The Nineteenth Century, ed.Marius Jansen(Cam-bridge:Cambridge University Press,1989),760—761.
[120]See charts on Japanese military expenditure in J.Charles Schencking, Making Waves:Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japa-nese Navy,1868—1922(Palo Alto, CA:Stanford University Press,2005),47(1873—1889);104(1890—1905).
[121]中国应该是应朝鲜国王之邀而出兵朝鲜,而日本是因为不愿意看到中国削弱其建立起来的地区影响力而自己主动出兵介入的。
[122]1894年日本借朝鲜国内起义进入朝鲜,并挑起甲午中日战争,中国战败后于1895年被迫与日本签下丧权辱国的《马关条约》,该条约规定中国放弃在朝鲜的宗主国权益,并承认朝鲜独立,同时将台湾及其附属岛屿、澎湖列岛和辽东半岛割让给日本。后在俄、德、法三国干涉下,日本将辽东半岛归还给中国。——译者注
[123]参见Kan Ichi Asakawa, The Russo-Japanese Conflict:Its Causes and Issues(Boston:Houghton Mifflin,1904),70—82;Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword:The Japanese Penetration of Korea,1895—1910(Berkeley:Universi-ty of California Press,1995),96—97。
[124]Asakawa, The Russo-Japanese Conflict,52.
[125]J.N.Westwood, Russia Against Japan,1904—1905:A New Look at the Russo-Japanese War(Albany:State University of New York Press,1986),11.
[126]Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War(New York:Methuen,1961),40.
[127]Geoffrey Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War:The German Conquest of France in 1870—1871(New York:Cambridge University Press,2013),17.
[128]Correlates of War Project,“National Material Capabilities Dataset,”version 4,1816—2007,http://www.correlatesofwar.org/data-sets/national-ma-terial-capabilities;J.David Singer, Stuart Bremer, and John Stuckey,“Capability Distribution, Uncertainty, and Major Power War,1820—1965,”in Peace, War, and Numbers, ed.Bruce Russett(Beverly Hills, CA:Sage,1972),19—48.
[129]Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War,17.
[130]Ibid,19.
[131]Robert Howard Lord, The Origins of the War of 1870(Cambridge:MA:Harvard University Press,1924),6.
[132]Ibid.
[133]Jonathan Steinberg, Bismarck:A Life(New York:Oxford University Press,2011),284.
[134]Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy(New York:Simon&Schuster,1994),118.
[135]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,515.
[136]George Edmundson, Anglo-Dutch Rivalry During the First Half of the Seventeenth Century(Oxford:Clarendon Press,1911),5.
[137]Ibid.
[138]Jack Levy,“The Rise and Decline of the Anglo-Dutch Rivalry,1609—1689”,in Great Power Rivalries, ed.William R.Thompson(Columbia:Univer-sity of South Carolina Press,1999),176.
[139]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,63;ibid.,178.
[140]Charles Wilson, Profit and Power:A Study of England and the Dutch Wars(London:Longmans, Green,1957),23.
[141]Ibid.,111.
[142]Levy,“The Rise and Decline of the Anglo-Dutch Rivalry,”180.
[143]Edmundson, Anglo-Dutch Rivalry,4.
[144]María J.Rodríguez-Salgado,“The Hapsburg-Valois Wars,”in The New Cambridge Modern History,2nd ed.,vol.2,ed.G.R.Elton(New York:Cam-bridge University Press,1990),380.
[145]Ibid.,378.对穆斯林“异教徒”进行战争是神圣罗马帝国皇帝的固有职责。
[146]Ibid.,380.
[147]Henry Kamen, Spain,1469—1714:A Society of Conflict,4th ed.(New York:Routledge,2014),64.
[148]John Lynch, Spain Under the Hapsburgs, vol.1(Oxford:Oxford Uni-versity Press,1964),88.
[149]Rodríguez-Salgado,“The Hapsburg-Valois Wars,”381.
[150]Lynch, Spain Under the Hapsburgs,88.
[151]Robert Jervis,“Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma,”World Poli-tics 2,no.2(January 1978),167—214.
[152]Martin Gilbert, Churchill:A Life(London:Heinemann,1991),239.
[153]David Evans and Mark Peattie, Kaigun:Strategy, Tactics, and Technolo-gy in the Imperial Japanese Navy,1887—1941(Annapolis, MD:Naval Institute Press,1997),147.
[154]就在就任第一海军大臣的两个月内,丘吉尔宣布“从事作战飞行”应该是“最光荣的,因为对英国年轻人而言,这是可以从事的最危险的职业”。他以身作则,亲自学习飞行驾驶。为了确保有可靠的石油供应新战舰,丘吉尔主导政府购买了盎格鲁—波斯(Anglo-Persian)石油公司(后来更名为英国石油公司)的多数股权。Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,240—241,248—249,251—253,259—261.Winston S.Churchill, The World Crisis, vol.1(New York:Scribner,1923),125—148.
[155]Churchill, The World Crisis,123—124.
[156]在哈佛大学肯尼迪学院的研讨会上,我发现即使有一个世纪的“后见之明”,国家安全方面的专家和军官仍然难以制定出可行的计划使英国摆脱这一困境。
[157]丘吉尔认为:“从历史的角度来看,虽然人物、事件(facts)、环境和条件在不断变换,但是这四个世纪的目的始终如一,足以成为任何种族、民族、国家或者人民所能展现的最引人注目的一页。而且,从任何角度来看,英国走的都是一条更加艰难的道路:英国曾经面对西班牙菲利普二世,在威廉三世和马尔伯勒领导下对抗法国路易十四,曾对抗法国拿破仑,对抗德国威廉二世,而面对以上每一种情况,英国本都可以加入更强大的一方,享受它胜利的果实,而且这么做也非常诱人。然而,我们总是选择那条更艰难的道路,加入较弱的一方,与它们联合起来,然后击败和阻止欧洲大陆上出现军事暴君,无论他是谁,也不管他领导的是哪个国家。因此,我们维护了欧洲的自由,保护了充满活力而多元的社会的发展,并在四场恐怖的战争之后崛起。此后,英国的声望与日俱增,帝国的版图不断扩大,也使低地国家安全地保持了独立。”Winston S.Churchill, The Second World War, vol.1:The Gathering Storm(Boston:Houghton Mi in,1948),207.
[158]导致战争的因素和事件极其复杂,且常常充满不确定性。其中一直以来被认为起到很大作用的因素包括:男子汉的荣誉准则;精英对内部失序可能会引发爱国战争的恐惧;民族主义;社会达尔文主义式的态度和战争不可避免的宿命论,甚至是其升级版;“对于进攻的狂热”;对导致外交僵化的军事动员的组织约束;很多其他因素。任何一个单一的模型都不足以解释战争这样如此复杂的事件。参见Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers:How Europe Went to War in 1914(London:Allen Lane;New York:Penguin Books,2012),xxi—xx-vii;Margaret MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace:How Europe Abandoned Peace for the First World War(London:Pro le Books,2013),xxi—xxii, xxx—xxxi,605。本章的目的不是评判相互冲突的历史学派的主张,或者是将其归咎于特定的历史人物,也不是“解释”战争的各种复杂情况。反之,本章努力阐明修昔底德式的压力是如何使英国和德国陷入一场永久改变世界的冲突中的。
[159]Churchill, The World Crisis,17—18.
[160]强调字体是作者后加的。Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,268.同时参考克里斯托弗·克拉克(Christopher Clark)关于“1914年的主角们为何都是梦游者,他们时刻警惕却视而不见,整日魂牵梦萦却对他们即将放纵于世上的可怕现实熟视无睹”的评论。Clark, The Sleepwalkers,562.关于德国军队的战争梦如何“成为噩梦,随即又成为现实”的讨论,参见Stig F?rster,“Dreams and Nightmares:German Military Leadership and the Images of Future Warfare,1871—1914,”in Anticipating Total War:The German and American Experi-ences,1871—1914,ed.Manfred F.Boemeke, Roger Chickering, and Stig F?rster(Washington, DC:German Historical Institute;Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,1999),376。
[161]Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,268.
[162]具体而言,正如之后政府所记录的,国王“反复表达自己的不安,认为我们一直对德国不友好,而与此相对照的是,我们热切追求法国,对它有求必应”。Paul M.Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism,1860—1914(London and Boston:Allen&Unwin,1980),402—403,540n73;K.M.Wil-son,“Sir Eyre Crowe on the Origin of the Crowe Memorandum of 1 January 1907,”Historical Research 56,no.134(November 1983),238—241.
[163]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,115—116.
[164]《克劳备忘录》全文参见“Memorandum on the Present State of British Relations with France and Germany”,January 1,1907,in British Documents on the Origins of the War,1898—1914,vol.3:The Testing of the Entente, ed.G.P.Gooch and H.Temperley(London:H.M.Stationery Office,1928),397—420。已退休的外交部常务副部长托马斯·桑德斯勋爵(Lord Thomas Sander-son)曾对克劳的分析提出异议,但是他曾被视作“对德国举起大棒”之人,因此克劳的观点占了上风。参见420—431,和Zara S.Steiner, Britain and the Ori-gins of the First World War(New York:St.Martin's Press,1977),44—45。关于备忘录重要性的讨论,参见Kissinger, On China,514—522。
[165]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,224—226.
[166]伦敦也是世界金融资本的中心。Ibid.,226,228.
[167]Niall Ferguson, Empire:How Britain Made the Modern World(London:Allen Lane,2003),222,240—244;Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,226.
[168]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,25—28,37.
[169]事实上,丘吉尔两年前就发表了第一次演讲,反对道德卫道士关闭伦敦核心区各类酒吧的企图。然而,他后来称自己1897年的演讲为“我第一次(正式的)演讲”。Robert Rhodes James, ed.,Winston S.Churchill:His Com-plete Speeches,1897—1963,vol.1(New York:Chelsea House Publishers,1974),25,28;Richard Toye, Churchill's Empire:The World That Made Him and the World He Made(London:Macmillan,2010),4—5;Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,71—72.
[170]Aaron Friedberg, The Weary Titan:Britain and the Experience of Rela-tive Decline,1895—1905(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1988);Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,229.
[171]关于丘吉尔在南非冒险经历的最新描述,参见Candice Millard, Hero of the Empire:The Boer War, a Daring Escape, and the Making of Winston Churchill(New York:Doubleday,2016)。
[172]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,265.
[173]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,198,226—228.正如肯尼迪所言:“世纪末的国际事务观察家认为经济和政治变化的节奏正在变快,因此可能使国际秩序比以往更加具有不确定性。均势变化不断出现,导致不稳定,也经常引发战争。修昔底德在《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》中写道:‘使战争不可避免的真正原因是雅典势力的增长以及因此而引起的斯巴达的恐惧。’但是19世纪最后25年,影响大国体系的变化较之前更为广泛,更加迅速。全球贸易和通信网络意味着科技突破或制造业生产的新进步能够在几年之内从一块大陆传播到另一块大陆。”
[174]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,227,230,232—233.
[175]Hew Strachan, The First World War, vol.1(Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2001),13;亦可参见Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,219—224。
[176]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,242—244.
[177]Ibid.,202.
[178]Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,1815—1908(Berkeley:University of California Press,1967),339.
[179]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,209—215;Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,231.
[180]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,55,129—130.
[181]George F.Kennan, The Decline of Bismarck's European Order:Franco-Russian Relations,1875—1890(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1979),97—98,400.
[182]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,212.
[183]Ibid.,199.
[184]1910年德国的国内生产总值是2100亿美元,英国的国内生产总值(不包括帝国其他地区)是2070亿美元(以1990年国际美元为单位计算)。参见“GDP Levels in 12 West European Countries,1869—1918,”in Maddison, The World Economy,426—427。
[185]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,211.
[186]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,464.
[187]Ibid.,293.
[188]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,101—102.亦可参见Clark, The Sleepwalkers,164—165。
[189]Ivan Berend, An Economic History of Nineteenth-Century Europe:Di-versity and Industrialization(New York:Cambridge University Press,2012),225.
[190]Clark, The Sleepwalkers,165.
[191]Bernard Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization:A History of Europe in Our Time(Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2007),13—14.
[192]Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring:The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age(Toronto:Lester&Orpen Dennys,1994),70—72.与德国和美国高等教育形成鲜明对比的是,英国精英大学及其毕业生厌恶商业和工业,关于这一点的讨论参见Martin J.Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the In-dustrial Spirit,1850—1980(Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,1981),22—24。
[193]为了对德国科学创造力的程度有一个直观的理解,读者可以思考这样一个事实:此刻你身体中一半的氮原子最初都是通过哈伯法(Haber-Bosch process)从大气中“做”(fix)出来的,而哈伯法是1913年发明的,生产了当今人类一半食物所需的化肥。Robert L.Zimdahl, Six Chemicals That Changed Agriculture(Amsterdam:Elsevier,2015),60.
[194]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,194—196;MacMil-lan, The War That Ended Peace,54—55.
[195]如果说德国在瓜分世界时晚来一步,那么这在很大程度上是因为俾斯麦本人对殖民冒险主义讳莫如深,他把德国视为有其他优先事项的“饱和”大国。在19世纪80年代“争夺非洲”的过程中,他指着一张欧洲地图对一位探险家说:“我的非洲地图就在欧洲。这里是俄国,这里是法国,我们正处于中间;这是我的非洲地图。”MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,80—82;Ken-nedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,211—213.关于被拒绝拥有与国家实力相称的全球地位而不满的一个例子,参见General Friedrich von Bernhardi's bestseller Germany and the Next War(New York:Longmans, Green,1912)。在“成为世界大国还是衰落”一章中,他向他的读者们解释道:“我们已经为民族团结以及我们在欧洲强国中的地位参加了最近的一系列大战;现在,我们必须作出决定,我们是否希望成为并维持一个世界帝国,是否要为使那些应该得到认可但到目前为止还未获得认可的德国精神和观念获得承认而努力。”
[196]Strachan, The First World War,6.
[197]威廉二世是出于内部事务原因而非外交政策原因而将俾斯麦解职。参见Robert K.Massie, Dreadnought:Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War(New York:Random House,1991),92—99。
[198]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,74.
[199]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,223—225.
[200]Emphasis added.Clark, The Sleepwalkers,151.
[201]“世界政策”本身也没有确定的定义。Clark, The Sleepwalkers,151—152;Strachan, The First World War,9—11;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,78—81.
[202]Clark, The Sleepwalkers,151.
[203]比洛将反对者比作那些人们常说的决心阻止下一代成长的专横父母。Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,311.
[204]Jonathan Steinberg,“The Copenhagen Complex,”Journal of Contempo-rary History 1,no.3(July 1966),27.
[205]强调字体是作者所加。MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,83—84.
[206]Michael Howard, The Continental Commitment(London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ:Ashfield Press,1989),32.
[207]维多利亚本人也是三岁之前只说德语。Massie, Dreadnought,3;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,58,84;Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Theo-dore Roosevelt and His Time:Shown in His Own Letters(New York:Scribner,1920),253—254.在柏林见面不久后,威廉二世和罗斯福在爱德华七世的葬礼上再次相见。爱德华七世的儿子、威廉二世的表兄弟乔治五世继承了王位。
[208]基尔一直不如考斯(Cowes)华丽。当听说威廉二世在登基初期因爱德华七世对身为皇帝的自己不够尊敬而动怒后,维多利亚女王的耐心也被消磨得差不多了。“我们一直与威廉非常亲密”,她写道,但是“假装私下对待他和在公共场合时一样尊称‘皇帝陛下’简直是痴人说梦”。MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,60—65,84—86;Massie, Dreadnought,152—159.
[209]罗斯福也指出威廉二世对其舅舅的矛盾心理,“(他)真心喜爱并尊敬爱德华七世,同时又因为嫉妒而非常不喜欢他,一会儿是这种感觉,一会儿又被另一种感觉占据,并且表现在了言语中”。Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time,254—255;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,86.威廉二世对于被承认的诉求体现在崛起国和守成国之间关系的国家层面。正如乔纳森·斯坦伯格(Jonathan Steinberg)所指出的:“年纪较轻的兄弟或者暴发户要获得承认,那根本不是一个可以讨论的事,因此英国从未满足德国的需求,甚至在一般意义上的外交方面也未达成‘协议’,这并不意外。对于一个准备好为几个南太平洋岛屿或者一块丝毫不会有损国家利益的北非领地而宣战的国家而言,根本不可能简单地通过现有的国际和解手段解决问题。德国人想要的是他们认为英国拥有的东西,但他们又同时希望不摧毁英国。因为如果只有摧毁大英帝国才能达到目的,德国就不能享受(平等的)待遇了。”参见Steinberg,“The Copenhagen Complex,”44—45。
[210]关于威廉二世对航海的又一比喻如何预示着其自身舰队的建设,参见MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,72。
[211]马汉的观点获得了西奥多·罗斯福的认同,其书也成为之后20年支持美国海军扩张的圣经。MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,87—89.
[212]Steinberg,“The Copenhagen Complex,”43.
[213]Clark, The Sleepwalkers,149.
[214]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,224.
[215]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,196,215.
[216]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,93.
[217]Steinberg,“The Copenhagen Complex,”25.
[218]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,225;Massie, Dreadnought,180.
[219]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,93;Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,224.
[220]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,212;Kennedy, An-glo-German Antagonism,422.
[221]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,224.
[222]正如玛格丽特·麦克米伦所指出的:“这说明了铁毕子目光短浅,他似乎认为英国人不会注意到这一明显的暗示,即他们已经被德国盯上了。”MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,94;Archibald Hurd and Henry Castle, German Sea-Power:Its Rise, Progress, and Economic Basis(London:J. Mur-ray,1913),348.
[223]1897年,威廉二世要求政府准备对英国作战的秘密计划,该计划要求采取突袭方式,攻占中立国比利时和荷兰,然后以它们作为入侵英国的踏板。乔纳森·斯坦伯格认为,尽管该计划在海军中有“强烈的拥护者”,但铁毕子认为,直到德国舰队更强大之前,这样的入侵是“疯狂的”。Steinberg,“The Co-penhagen Complex,”27—28.
[224]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,94—95.
[225]战后,铁毕子宣称:“按照英国统治世界愿望而缔结的条约永远不会符合德国的基本需要。对于缔结条约而言,平等本该是其前提。”MacMillan,The War That Ended Peace,78—79,95—96;Kennedy, Anglo-German Antago-nism,226—227.
[226]虽然建造一支宏大的舰队需要时间,但威廉二世还是期待他能按照自己的方式行事。正如他向法国大使所说的那样,当20年之后海军建成之时,“我就不会这样说话了”。MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,90,93,95—99;Massie, Dreadnought,176—179;Strachan, The First World War,11—12.
[227]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,89—90;John Van der Kiste, Kaiser Wilhelm II:Germany's Last Emperor(Stroud, UK:Sutton,1999),121—122;Holger H.Herwig,“Luxury”Fleet:The Imperial German Navy,1888—1918(London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ:Ashfield Press,1987),51.
[228]Van der Kiste, Kaiser Wilhelm II,122;Herwig,“Luxury”Fleet,51.
[229]正如保罗·肯尼迪所言:“铁毕子推定德国可以在英国没有注意或者无法作出反应的情况下在国内水域内建造一支令人生畏的强大海军,但这从一开始就是错误的。”Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,251—252.
[230]Matthew S.Seligmann, Frank N?gler, and Michael Epkenhans, eds.,The Naval Route to the Abyss:The Anglo-German Naval Race,1895—1914(Farnham, Surrey, UK:Ashgate Publishing,2015),137—138.
[231]英国对德国海军计划越来越担心,与此同时英国对德国外交政策的态度也普遍变得更加不友好。到1901年时,由于已经注意到德国对英国阳奉阴违,特别是在所希望的在华伙伴关系一事上尤为如此,内阁中英德联盟的支持者失去了之前合作的兴趣。Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,225,243—246,252.
[232]Ibid.,243—246,265.
[233]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,129.威廉二世和铁毕子宣称德国被孤立了,但正如其外交部曾经评论的那样:“对于类似的举动,如果英国媒体更关注德国海军力量而不是巴西的话——威廉二世认为这看起来是不公平的——毫无疑问,这是由于德国海岸线距离英国更近而巴西距离更远。”Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,421.
[234]Friedberg, The Weary Titan,161—180.
[235]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,243—246,249—250.
[236]George W.Monger, The End of Isolation:British Foreign Policy,1900—1907(London and New York:T.Nelson,1963),163.
[237]Howard, Continental Commitment,33—34.
[238]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,310.
[239]Ibid.,424—429.
[240]John C.G.R?hl, Kaiser Wilhelm II:A Concise Life(Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,2014),98.
[241]1905年,费希尔私下称,恐吓敌人是避免战争的最好办法:“如果你在国内外不断这么做,那你就已经准备好每支部队都可以立即在最前线作战,同时打算‘首先出击’,先打击敌人的腹部,再当他蹲下时踢他,并用油锅烹煮俘虏(如果有的话),折磨他的女人和孩子,这样的话,人们就会远远地离开你。尤利乌斯·恺撒所说的‘如果你想要和平,就要备战’,仍然是千真万确的。”但是,就在同一年,一位海军大臣公开宣布“皇家海军将在对手甚至没有时间看到报纸上宣战消息之前就首先进行打击”,之后德皇试图让英国政府训斥这位政府官员。威廉二世对他的几位海军将领所说的话很好地总结了他对此的反应:“那些在英国威胁持续存在情况下认为需要加快海军装备计划的人是正确的,而那些害怕英国并想要避免我们舰队快速发展的人是在让德国人失去未来。”除了向国王建议采取防御性攻击之外,费希尔还在1905年告诉这位海军大臣的领导,“如果你想粉碎德国舰队,我现在已经准备好了。如果你要等五六年,这将是一个更为艰巨的任务”。首相则表示,费希尔应该要知道:“我们不想粉碎德国海军,而是对此作好准备。”费希尔回应道:“很好,记得我警告过你。”战争结束后,费希尔抱怨英国既没有皮特也没有俾斯麦这样的人来下令“像当年摧毁丹麦舰队那样摧毁”德国舰队,但是没有证据表明海军内部真正考虑过这种选择。Arthur J.Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol.1(London and New York:Oxford University Press,1961—1970),111—114;Steinberg,“The Copenhagen Complex,”30—31,37—39;William Mulligan,“Restraints on Preventative War Before 1914,”in The Outbreak of the First World War:Structure, Politics, and Decision-Making, ed.Jack S.Levy and John A.Vasquez(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2014),131—132;MacMil-lan, The War That Ended Peace,118—119;John Arbuthnot Fisher, Memories(London and New York:Hodder and Stoughton,1919),4—5.
[242]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,99.
[243]铁毕子也未能预料到英国海军在战争中最终采取的战略,即封锁德国而不是发动决战以及是德国的潜艇而非昂贵的战舰将在战争中更加有效。MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,88,94,99.德国国内也有人注意到了铁毕子计划中的缺陷,正如保罗·肯尼迪所言:“随着时间的推进,这些批评都被证明是正确的;但是铁毕子以及相信他的德皇却拒绝承认这些质疑,认为不管怎样,双方的竞争都将继续下去。”Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,419.
[244]Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow,74.
[245]Strachan, The First World War,17.
[246]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,86.人们认为德国不愿意达到同等的造船水平是因为“缺乏民族精神”,正如丘吉尔后来写道:“这再一次证明勇敢的民族应该推进取代虚弱、过度文明的和平主义社会的步伐,因为这种社会不能够继续维持其在世界事务中的一席之地。”Churchill, The World Cri-sis,34.
[247]Strachan, The First World War,17—18.
[248]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,116—117.
[249]参见Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow,67。
[250]假日周末(holiday weekend)是指某个与节日相连的周末。——译者注
[251]Massie, Dreadnought,407.
[252]Ibid.,183.
[253]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,443—444;Steinberg,“The Co-penhagen Complex,”40.
[254]自由党领导的政府包括从保守党倒戈的温斯顿·丘吉尔面临广泛的游说压力,要求增加海军开支。这种游说不仅包括广为人知的支持建造八艘新无畏级战舰的爱德华七世,也包括“我们要八艘,我们不要等”的流行口号。1909年,政府作出了妥协,誓言在当年建造四艘无畏级战舰,并且下一年如果认为有必要的话再建造四艘。劳合·乔治的新税制引发了政治动荡,但自由党最终获得了胜利,预算支出法案也得以通过。MacMillan, The War That En-ded Peace,127—129;Strachan, The First World War,26.
[255]关于克劳的观点的讨论,参见Clark, The Sleepwalkers,162—164。
[256]正如休·斯特罗恩(Hew Strachan)所言:“用‘偏执狂的’和‘宿命论的’这些表述来形容1905年之后的德国似乎并无不当之处。”Strachan, The First World War,20.
[257]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,445.
[258]Barbara W.Tuchman, The Guns of August(New York:Macmillan,1962),2.
[259]1908年,爱德华七世对费希尔谈到英德对抗造成的生疏感:“我们抛弃本该是我们天然盟友的撒克逊人而去选择凯尔特人是有悖于本来的原则的,但是我必须承认,某一个由前者构成的国家和民族嫉妒心极强,不幸地成为我们最充满敌意的敌人。”但他希望英国的警惕能够解决一切麻烦:“如果我们像现在这样继续加大油门干,他们会接受最终的必然结果的,会和我们友好相处。不过,我们必须永远也不能放松对整个北海的警惕!”Arthur J.Marder, Fear God and Dread Nought:The Correspondence of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, vol.2(London:Cape,1956—1959),170.在收到德国驻伦敦大使报告英国不会接受德国“粉碎”法国成为大陆霸主的当日,威廉二世对外交部长表示:“出于仇恨和嫉妒,英国将毫无疑问地站在法国和俄国一方对抗德国。在即将进行的生存之战中,欧洲的日耳曼民族(奥地利、德国)将与斯拉夫人(俄国人)和他们的拉丁裔(高卢人)支持者进行对抗,而盎格鲁撒克逊人将和斯拉夫人站在一边。其原因是一丝嫉妒和对我们日益强大的恐惧。”Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War(New York:W.W.Norton,1967),32;Holger H.Herwig,“Germany,”in The Origins of World War I, ed.Richard F.Hamilton and Holger H.Herwig(Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,2003),162—163.
[260]Churchill, The World Crisis,43—48;Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow,239—241;Strachan, The First World War,25—26;Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,233—235;Annika Mombauer, Helmuth Von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War(Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,2001),126.
[261]伯恩哈迪(Bernhardi)的《德国与下一场战争》(1912年)就是在这种环境下诞生的,这本好战的畅销书讲述了德国追求成为世界大国但屡屡受挫的故事。正如伯恩哈迪所言:“我们不仅需要广泛的政治基础来实现我们国家物质方面的全面发展,达到与其智识重要地位相匹配的水平,我们还必须为我们不断增加的人口获得空间,为不断增长的工业获取市场。但是,当我们朝着这个方向每走一步时,英国就会坚决地反对……既然斗争就如同彻底调查国际问题那样是必要和不可避免的,那我们就必须不惜任何代价斗争到底。”因此,所有伯恩哈迪的英国读者都有充分的理由担心德国推翻英国所坚定支持的现状和欧洲均势的决心:“世界历史上没有什么是静止不变的……要维持现状显然是不可能的,虽然外交常常试图这样做……必须完全摧毁法国使其再也无法阻挡我们的道路……自维也纳会议以来形成的欧洲的均势原则几乎成了神圣不可僭越之事,但它是完全不合理的,我们必须完全漠视它。”
[262]容克是指普鲁士贵族。在阿加迪尔危机之前,丘吉尔对德国的态度一直都更为乐观些。1908年时,丘吉尔与劳合·乔治一样,对增加海军开支持谨慎态度。他后来写道,尽管“从狭义上讲”他和劳合·乔治对德国海军预计的增长持怀疑态度是正确的,但是他们就这种增长“对于未来命运大潮影响的预判是绝对错误的”。Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,233—236;Churchill, The World Crisis,33,43—48;Massie, Dreadnought,819.
[263]在阿加迪尔危机期间,英国领导人曾担心德国突然袭击,但英国的舰队显然非常分散而且脆弱。英国内阁意识到唯一知道海军的秘密战争计划的是费希尔的继任者,而他当时正在度假。丘吉尔发现海军部拒绝为海军易受攻击的弹药库提供武装保护,因此他主动命令陆军保护这些弹药库。他下令截获可疑通信,发现“德国陆军和海军当局正在对我们进行详细而科学的研究”。1911年8月,丘吉尔草拟出了未来德国将如何进攻法国这一极富先见之明的想法。1914年,他的一位同事将这份备忘录描述为“预言的胜利!”费希尔虽已退休,但仍是新任海军大臣的热心顾问。Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,234—237,240—242;Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow,242—244;Churchill, The World Crisis,44—67.
[264]丘吉尔还向卡塞尔补充道,如果德国人顽固不化,“除了礼貌和备战,我看不出其它可能”。Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,198,242—245.要求英国中立一直是1909年至1911年间夭折的英德对话的僵持点。英国外交部担心,德国试图利用海军谈判作为手段使英国在未来德国寻求大陆霸权的过程中保持中立。新上任的德国首相特奥巴尔德·冯·贝特曼·霍尔韦格缺乏足够的影响力来迫使铁毕子真正削减他所热衷的海军项目。参见Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War,52—57;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,122—124,507—509;Strachan, The First World War,23;Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow,221—233。
[265]铁毕子私下强调,这个比例不适用于巡洋舰。Patrick Kelly, Tirpitz and the Imperial General Navy(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,2011),326—351,345;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,507—509;Massie, Dreadnought,821—823,829—831.
[266]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,203引用,比例计算自Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War(New York:Basic Books,1999),84。
[267]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,129.
[268]Massie, Dreadnought, xxv;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,129—130.
[269]Michael Howard, Empires, Nations and Wars(Stroud, UK:Spell-mount,2007),5—6.
[270]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,129—130;Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,231;Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War,57—59.
[271]到1913年,海军军备竞赛已成为英国对德国崛起恐惧的表现,而不仅仅是恐惧的原因。外交大臣爱德华·格雷意识到:“铁毕子所说的并不重要,他之所以那样讲并不是因为热爱我们‘美丽的眼睛’,而是因为扩充德国军队还得需要额外的5000万。”Massie, Dreadnought,829.英德两国中的一部分人确实感受到1912年到1914年间英德关系有所改善,但因此就认为英德“缓和”是不切实际的。参见Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,452。
[272]正如海军预算反映了德国对英国的态度一样,德国的陆军预算也真切地反映了德国对俄国的担忧。1898年,德国海军开支还不到陆军预算的五分之一;到1911年,其占比已经扩大到一半以上。在1904年到1912年间与英国的海军军备竞赛中,德国海军的预算增长了137%,而陆军只增长了47%。但在这之后,钟摆又摆了回来:从1910年到1914年,海军预算增长了不到10%,而陆军的经费则飙升了117%。参见Herwig,“Luxury”Fleet,75;Quin-cy Wright, A Study of War(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1965),670—671。
[273]到1914年,四分之一的法国投资流向了迅速工业化的俄国。此外,1914年俄国海军的开支比1907年增加了两倍,超过了德国。Strachan, The First World War,19,62—63.
[274]1912年12月,德国总参谋长赫尔穆特·冯·毛奇(Helmuth von Mo-ltk)敦促德皇向俄国开战,“越快越好”。德国外交部长回忆称,1914年春天,毛奇告诉德皇“只有进行预防性战争,我们才有可能打败敌人,同时在战争后依然安然无恙”,否则的话,他不知道该如何对付恢复武装的俄国。不久之后的5月,毛奇告诉他的奥地利同僚:“再等下去就意味着我们的机会减少了。”在最严重的七月危机时,毛奇向德皇威廉二世表示他们“不再会像我们现在那样痛击法国和俄国了,因为目前法国和俄国的军力扩张还未完成”。在弗朗茨·斐迪南大公遇刺前一个月,德皇威廉二世自己曾考虑在俄国完全重新武装之前进行攻击是否明智之举。他的首相贝特曼·霍尔韦格曾这样说道,俄国“越来越强大,像噩梦一样压在我们身上”,他甚至建议不要在他的庄园里种植任何树木,因为它们可能很快就会落到俄国手中。1914年夏天,他认为“如果战争不可避免,那么现在将比以后更有利”。Holger H.Herwig, The First World War:Germany and Austria-Hungary,1914—1918(London:Bloomsbury,2014),20—24.亦可参见Clark, The Sleepwalkers,326—334。
[275]奥匈帝国外交部长向内阁报告称,“即使我们对塞尔维亚的军事行动会导致一场大战”,柏林也将支持维也纳。Herwig, The First World War,17.
[276]德皇在7月初支持维也纳的决定也源于他对在最近几次危机中没有勇敢面对敌人而受到羞辱的顾虑有关。他认为这是终结俄国在巴尔干地区影响力的好机会,即使这导致了与俄国的战争。当德皇收到大使报告,称奥地利准备就斐迪南大公遇刺一事进攻塞尔维亚,他表示:“要么现在,要么永远也不要。”7月下旬,随着英国加入战争的可能性越来越大,贝特曼·霍尔韦格和德皇试图限制奥匈帝国入侵塞尔维亚的程度,建议“在贝尔格莱德就停止”,但毛奇撤回了他发给维也纳的建议,并称奥地利和德国应该立即动员起来反对俄国。Herwig, The First World War,17—30;MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,522—533。对于德皇在1914年7月时在多大程度上积极寻求与俄国开战尚不清楚。很可能仅仅是奥地利在巴尔干的影响力超过俄国他就已经心满意足了。但是,在有必要的情况下,他肯定愿意就此争端与俄国一战。参见John C.G.R?hl,“Goodbye to All That(Again)?The Fischer Thesis, the New Revisionism and the Meaning of the First World War,”International Aairs 91,no.1(2015),159。
[277]Howard, Empires, Nations and Wars,111;Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,462;Massie, Dreadnought,901—902,905.在对这场战争的描述中,丘吉尔将1914年德国的挑战比作当年西班牙帝国、路易十四帝国和拿破仑帝国的挑战,英国曾将欧洲从这些帝国的“军事统治”下拯救出来。Church-ill, The World Crisis,1—2.
[278]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,470.
[279]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace, xxiii—xxv,593.
[280]Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,261—264.
[281]丘吉尔曾告诉内阁,战争是“文明国家难以想象的可怕灾难”,但他仍是英国介入战争以保卫法国的最有力的支持者之一。在个人层面上,他也喜欢战争的刺激。战争期间,丘吉尔亲自指挥军队。在那封警告妻子“灾难和崩溃”的信中,他也承认“我很感兴趣,也准备好了,而且感到很开心”。他的一位密友也记录了之后他对此的看法,他曾惊呼道:“我的上帝!这是鲜活的历史。我们正在做的和说的每件事都是激动人心的——想想吧,它们将被世代相传!为什么我不会为了这个世界能给我的任何东西而退出这场光荣而美妙的战争(眼睛闪闪发光但略带焦虑,唯恐‘美味’一词在我耳边阵阵发响)。我说,不要重复‘美味’一词——你明白我的意思。”Gilbert, Churchill:A Life,268—275,281,283—286,294—295,331—360;Churchill, The World Crisis,245—246.
[282]Churchill, The World Crisis, vi.
[283]有趣的是,丘吉尔并不认为格雷事先明确宣布英国将介入战争会有助于阻止战争的发生,因为他认为这样的声明缺乏政治支持,并将导致政府垮台。他认为不可能放弃法国和俄国,而且在“最后的危机中,英国外交大臣除了他已经做的之外什么也做不了”。Churchill, The World Crisis,5—6;Win-ston S.Churchill, The World Crisis:The Aftermath(London:T.Butterworth,1929),439—444.
[284]试图回答这个问题需要反事实推理。“如果”是烧脑的思维游戏,让人忍不住去探究烧脑难题,但对许多主流历史学家来说却不那么舒服。然而,它们是应用历史学的一个主要部分。事实上,正如哈佛大学应用历史项目所证明的(至少让我满意),反事实推理是所有历史学家评估各种原因相对重要性的核心,其困难在于在推理过程中既要明确又要缜密。
[285]在七月危机中,贝特曼·霍尔韦格曾谈道:“超越人类力量的宿命正在笼罩着欧洲和我们的人民。”事实上,贝特曼·霍尔韦格很清楚自己在发动战争中扮演的角色。不到一年之后,他私下承认了自己永远的内疚:“这种想法从未离开过我,我一直生活在这种想法中。”参见Herwig, The First World War,23,30。虽然贝特曼·霍尔韦格宣称的无知是虚伪和自私的,但它也揭示了另一个悖论:即使参与者意识到自己有意识的决定可能会带来灾难性的后果,他们也可能会被深层的力量所驱使,以至于后来他们会觉得自己已经无能为力了。
[286]Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt(New York:Coward, McCann&Geoghegan,1979),21.
[287]Memorandum to President William McKinley, April 26,1897,in The Se-lected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed.H.W.Brands(New York:Cooper Square Press,2001),129—130.
[288]Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,572—573.
[289]在西奥多·罗斯福的总统任期内,美国在哥伦比亚采取了三次干预行动,在洪都拉斯和多米尼加共和国采取了两次干预行动,在古巴和巴拿马各采取了一次干预行动,关于这些干预行动和到1935年为止的其他干预行动的总结,参见William Appleman Williams, Empire as a Way of Life(New York:Ox-ford University Press,1980),102—110,136—142,165—167;Barbara Salazar Torreon,“Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad,1798—2015,”Congressional Research Service, October 15,2015,https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42738.pdf。
[290]Theodore Roosevelt,“Expansion and Peace,”in The Strenuous Life(New York:P.F.Collier&Son,1899),32.
[291]Theodore Roosevelt,“Naval War College Address,”Newport, RI, June 2,1897,http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/images/research/speeches/tr1898.pdf.
[292]Albert Weinberg, Manifest Destiny:A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History(Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1935),1—2.
[293]Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, vol.1(Lincoln:Universi-ty of Nebraska Press,1995),1,7.
[294]Gregg Jones, Honor in the Dust:Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philip-pines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream(New York:New A-merican Library,2012),24.罗斯福发表此番讲话近70年后,C.范恩·伍德沃德(C.Vann Woodward)提出,美国享有的“自由安全”,即“自然恩赐”的太平洋、大西洋和北冰洋屏障,以及19世纪80年代美国商船在大西洋上运送货物时得到英国海军的保护,这对美国实力的增长和扩张主义倾向起到了重要作用,“只要自由的土地(freeland)是肥沃和适合耕种的,”伍德沃德写道,“只要安全不仅免费,而且持久(strong)和有效,世界似乎就成了专为美国准备的牡蛎,这丝毫不足为奇。”参见C.Vann Woodward,“The Age of Reinterpreta-tion,”American Historical Review 66,no.1(October 1960),1—19。
[295]Theodore Roosevelt, The Naval War of 1812(New York:Modern Li-brary,1999),151.第一次出版时间是在1882年。
[296]Roosevelt,“Naval War College Address.”
[297]Charles Kupchan, How Enemies Become Friends:The Sources of Stable Peace(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2010),74.
[298]Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex(New York:Random House,2001),184.
[299]Roosevelt,“Expansion and Peace,”29.
[300]Weinberg, Manifest Destiny,429—430.
[301]Theodore Roosevelt,“The Expansion of the White Races:Address at the Celebration of the African Diamond Jubilee of the Methodist Episcopal Church,”Washington, DC, January 18,1909,www.theodore-roosevelt.com/images/research/speeches/trwhiteraces.pdf.
[302]Theodore Roosevelt,“Fourth Annual Message,”December 6,1904,UCSB American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29545;Roosevelt,“The Expansion of the White Races.”
[303]Theodore Roosevelt,“First Annual Message,”December 3,1901,UCSB American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29542.
[304]Joseph Nye, Presidential Leadership and the Creation of the American Era(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2013),23.
[305]Theodore Roosevelt,“The Strenuous Life,”April 10,1899,http://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/roosevelt-strenuous-life-1899-speech-text/.
[306]Theodore Roosevelt,“The Monroe Doctrine,”The Bachelor of Arts 2,no.4(March 1896),443.
[307]Louis Pérez Jr.,Cuba in the American Imagination:Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos(Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,2008),30.
[308]从19世纪60年代开始,西班牙面临古巴国内一系列独立运动:“十年战争”(1868—1878年)、“小规模战争”(the Small War)和最后的“独立战争”(1879—1880年),美国都对这些运动进行了干预。
[309]Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,513.
[310]参见William McKinley,“First Inaugural Address,”March 4,1897,Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/mckin1.asp。
[311]罗斯福在两封信中表达了“把西班牙人赶出古巴”的愿望:Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,513,526。关于他对马汉的评论,参见Letter to Alfred Thayer Mahan, May 3,1897,in Brands, The Selected Letters of TheodoreRoosevelt,133。莫里斯描述了麦金利对罗斯福“将寻求让美国卷入战争”的不安。参见The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,560。
[312]Ben Procter, William Randolph Hearst:The Early Years,1863—1910(New York:Oxford University Press,1998),103.
[313]Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,586.
[314]参见Letter to Hermann Speck von Sternberg, January 17,1898,in Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt,168。
[315]Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,607.
[316]Jones, Honor in the Dust,10.
[317]调查没有具体指控西班牙或者古巴的实施者,但很清楚,爆炸是水雷引发的外部原因造成的。此后,这一直是一个争议点;随后的调查表明,爆炸实际上是偶然的。
[318]Mark Lee Gardner, Rough Riders:Theodore Roosevelt, His Cowboy Regiment, and the Immortal Charge Up San Juan Hill(New York:HarperCol-lins,2016),175;Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt,650.
[319]1898年5月,美国船只在马尼拉湾摧毁了西班牙舰队,取得了出乎意料的迅速胜利,数月后古巴问题也得到了正式解决。在这场战争结束后,美国支付给菲律宾2000万美元,然后占领了菲律宾群岛,导致了美菲战争的爆发,从1899年开始一直持续到1902年。与此同时,新解放的古巴只是名义上的独立,该国新宪法赋予美国控制古巴与其他国家的关系,并保证美国拥有维持秩序,并进行“干预”的权利。美国在1906—1909年、1912年和1917—1922年通过干预行动行使了这一权利。
[320]Daniel Aaron, Men of Good Hope:A Story of American Progressives(New York:Oxford University Press,1951),268.
[321]在描述罗斯福总统任期的这段时间时,历史学家理查德·科林(Rich-ard Collin)写道:“罗斯福的主要任务是让欧洲相信美国是认真的。”参见Rich-ard Collin, Theodore Roosevelt, Culture Diplomacy, and Expansion:A New View of American Imperialism(Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,1985),101。在其他地方,科林指出罗斯福希望“阻止一个强大的德国在加勒比海地区取代一个弱小的西班牙。罗斯福的大棒……是针对欧洲的,而不是针对拉丁美洲的”。参见科林的Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean:The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context(Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,1990),xii。有关罗斯福怀疑德国对委内瑞拉企图的详细描述,也可参见James R.Holmes, Theodore Roosevelt and World Order:Po-lice Power in International Relations(Washington, DC:Potomac Books,2006),165—167。
[322]Morris, Theodore Rex,186—187.
[323]Edmund Morris,“A Few Pregnant Days,”Theodore Roosevelt Associa-tion Journal 15,no. 1(Winter 1989),4.关于这件事的详细记录,参见莫里斯的Theodore Rex,183—191和“A Few Pregnant Days,”2—13。
[324]Morris,“A Few Pregnant Days,”2.
[325]“门罗主义”宣称,西半球国家“不应被任何欧洲大国视为未来殖民统治的对象”,并警告称,美国“只能将任何欧洲大国的干预视为对美国不友好的表现”。参见James Monroe,“Seventh Annual Message,”December 2,1823,UCSB American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29465。
[326]阿根廷称“马尔维纳斯群岛”。——译者注
[327]Stephen Rabe,“Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roose-velt Corollary:Sphere of Influence Diplomacy,”in A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed.Serge Ricard(Malden, MA:Wiley-Blackwell,2011),277;Er-nest May, Imperial Democracy:The Emergence of America as a Great Power(Chicago:Imprint Publications,1961),33,128;Robert Freeman Smith,“Latin America, The United States and the European powers,1830—1930,”in TheCambridge History of Latin America, vol.4:1870 to 1930,ed.Leslie Bethell(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986),98—99.
[328]Lars Schoultz, Beneath the United States:A History of U.S.Policy To-ward Latin America(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1998),112.
[329]Letter to Henry Cabot Lodge, December 27,1895,in Brands, The Se-lected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt,113.大约在同一时间,罗斯福还声称:“如果出现混乱,我将尝试亲自插手此事。”参见Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt,112。
[330]关于1895年争端的详细描述,参见Schoultz, Beneath the United States,107—124。
[331]Roosevelt,“The Monroe Doctrine,”437—439.
[332]参见Theodore Roosevelt,“Second Annual Message,”December 2,1902,UCSB American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29543/。
[333]Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,121.在加勒比海,美国海军的优势明显:12月份时有53艘战舰,而德国只有10艘,参见Morris,“A Few Pregnant Days,”7。
[334]Rabe,“Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Cor-ollary,”280;Warren Zimmerman, First Great Triumph:How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power(New York:Farrar, Straus and Giroux,2002),426.
[335]Theodore Roosevelt,“Charter Day Address,”UC Berkeley, March 23,1911.参见University of California Chronicle, vol.13(Berkeley, CA:The Uni-versity Press,1911),139。
[336]Rabe,“Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Cor-ollary,”274.
[337]David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas:The Creation of the Panama Canal,1870—1914(New York:Simon&Schuster,1977),250.
[338]参见Theodore Roosevelt,“Special Message,”January 4,1904,UCSB American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=69417。
[339]波哥大是哥伦比亚的首都。——译者注
[340]参见Schoultz, Beneath the United States,164;Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,239。虽然是哥伦比亚参议院正式否决了继续推动该计划,但罗斯福却指责该国总统若泽·马罗金(José Marroqueín)没有利用自己的影响力去推动通常只是“走过场的”参议院批准该条约。
[341]William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Letters of John Hay, vol.2(Bos-ton:Houghton Mifflin,1915),327—328.
[342]Morris, Theodore Rex,273.科林详细描述了提交罗斯福的法律备忘录,该备忘录支持这一结论,参见Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,240—243。
[343]参见Morris, Theodore Rex,275;Rabe,“Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Corollary,”285。
[344]为了核实比诺·瓦里拉所说的革命是否真的可能发生,罗斯福在白宫会见了他这一年早些时候秘密派遣到巴拿马去评估局势的两名军官。他们假扮成游客,在该地区进行了广泛的侦察,并报告说,叛乱的筹划工作确实正在进行之中。
[345]Morris, Theodore Rex,282—283;McCullough, The Path Between the Seas,378—379.
[346]美国保持了其军事存在,向哥伦比亚人发出信号,不要干预,同时提醒巴拿马人,他们脆弱的独立依赖于美国的持续支持。罗斯福对于该革命的确切参与程度和对该革命的了解一直是争议的根源。详细的原因,参见Morris, Theodore Rex,270—283;Schoultz, Beneath the United States,165—168;Col-lin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,254—268;McCullough, The Path Between the Seas,349—386。
[347]Schoultz, Beneath the United States,175.
[348]Noel Maurer and Carlos Yu,“What T.R.Took:The Economic Impact of the Panama Canal,1903—1937,”Journal of Economic History 68,no.3(2008),698—699.
[349]这笔收入大部分用于支付运河的运营和维护费用。参见McCullough, The Path Between the Seas,612;Eloy Aguilar,“U.S.,Panama Mark Handover of Canal,”Associated Press, December 14,1999,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/pmextra/dec99/14/panama.htm。
[350]Noel Maurer and Carlos Yu, The Big Ditch:How America Took, Built, Ran, and Ultimately Gave Away the Panama Canal(Princeton, NJ:Princeton U-niversity Press,2010),89—92.
[351]罗斯福说:“巴拿马人民长期以来一直对哥伦比亚共和国不满,他们只因有缔结条约的前景才保持沉默,因为对他们来说,那是一个至为重要的问题。而当这份条约显然已经无望时,巴拿马人民就会像一个人那样一起站起来反抗。”一位参议员对此反驳道:“是的,这一个人就是罗斯福。”McCullough, The Path Between the Seas,382.后来,罗斯福指出:“有人说我在巴拿马煽动叛乱……我不必挑拨离间,只要把脚抬起来就行了。”参见Frederick S.Wood, Roosevelt As We Knew Him(Philadelphia:J.C.Winston,1927),153,引自“TR on the Panama Revolution of 1903,”Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal 15,no.4(Fall 1989),5。正如莫里斯和科林所指出的那样,罗斯福经常提醒批评他的人,在过去几十年里,巴拿马面临过无数次革命企图,哥伦比亚政府经常请求美国帮助维持秩序。Morris, Theodore Rex,273;Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,327.科林进一步强调,1855年后,“美国海军舰艇总是在巴拿马或者附近执勤,在叛乱时,这些部队通常会增加。美国海军的存在不是外来入侵,而是哥伦比亚政策和外交的中心,传统上是应哥伦比亚的要求,因为一直有着存在矛盾的巴拿马能够起到对哥伦比亚主权法律的实际保障作用。参见Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean,267。”
[352]Rabe,“Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Cor-ollary,”287.
[353]长久以来,正确的边界都是个问题:1825年俄国和英国签署的一项条约确立了英国对该争议领土的大部分控制权,但俄国地图并未反映该条约的坐标。这些地图成为事实上的领土界线指南,而英国从未反对在“官方”和“实际”领土边界之间留下巨大的差距。
[354]参见Tony McCulloch,“Theodore Roosevelt and Canada:Alaska, the‘Big Stick,’and the North Atlantic Triangle,1901—1909,”in A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed.Serge Ricard(Malden, MA:Wiley-Blackwell,2011),296—300;Christopher Sands,“Canada's Cold Front:Lessons of the Alaska Boundary Dispute for Arctic Boundaries Today,”International Journal 65(Win-ter 2009—10),210—212。
[355]Elting E.Morison, ed.,The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1954),530.正如参议员亨利·卡伯特·洛奇所解释的那样:“没有哪个有一点自尊的国家”会愿意放弃已经成为宝贵领土的东西。洛奇称:“没有哪一位美国总统会想过要这样投降,你完全可以放心,西奥多·罗斯福是不会投降的。”参见John A.Munro, ed.,The Alaska Boundary Dispute(Toronto:Copp Clark Publishing,1970),4。
[356]Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power(Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1956),113—114.
[357]For a description of the selection of the tribunal's members, see Norman Penlington, The Alaska Boundary Dispute:A Critical Reappraisal(Toronto:McGraw-Hill,1972),70—81.
[358]William Tilchin, Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire:A Study in Presidential Statecraft(London:Macmillan,1997),44.
[359]Wood, Roosevelt As We Knew Him,115.
[360]参见“Statement by the Canadian Commissioners”in Munro, The Alaska Boundary Dispute,64;Canadian reactions in Penlington, The Alaska Boundary Dispute,1,104。对阿尔弗斯通的指控也是由该法庭的加拿大成员提出的,正如特纳参议员所回忆的那样:“阿尔弗斯通勋爵和他的加拿大同事之间的辩论是激烈而尖刻的,后者在辩论中暗示,阿尔弗斯通勋爵是在英国政府出于外交原因坚持下才放弃了加拿大的案子。”参见Wood, Roosevelt As We Knew Him,120;Penlington, The Alaska Boundary Dispute,108。
[361]Munro, The Alaska Boundary Dispute,86.
[362]Frederick Marks III, Velvet on Iron:The Diplomacy of Theodore Roose-velt(Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,1979),163n37.
[363]Roosevelt,“Fourth Annual Message.”
[364]Robert Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest in America's Foreign Relations(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1953),144.
[365]对美国的消极态度和看法在不同的来源中都被讨论过。有三个例子:“到20世纪初,整个拉美社会已经越来越担心,美国的计划包含了美国主宰(dominance)的目标。”(Thomas O'Brien, Making the Americas:The United States and Latin America from the Age of Revolutions to the Era of Globalization[Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,2007]127);到20世纪20年代,“对北方庞然大物的不信任和批评达到了历史最高水平”(Stuart Brewer, Borders and Bridges:A History of US-Latin American Relations[Westport, CT:Praeger Security International,2006]99);而1898—1933年则是一个对美国充满“敌意”的时期(Alan McPherson, ed.,Anti-Americanism in Latin America and the Caribbean[New York:Berghahn Books,2006]14)。
[366]参见John Hassett and Braulio Mu?oz, eds.,Looking North:Writings from Spanish America on the US,1800 to the Present(Tucson:University of Arizo-na Press,2012),46;“Porfirio Díaz,”in The Oxford Dictionary of American Quo-tations(New York:Oxford University Press,2006)。
[367]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,2.
[368]Ibid.,133.
[369]Evan Osnos,“Born Red,”New Yorker, April 6,2015,http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/06/born-red.
[370]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,17.
[371]Ibid.
[372]Ibid.,2.
[373]Ibid.,3.
[374]Kissinger, On China,2.
[375]John K.Fairbank,“China's Foreign Policy in Historical Perspective,”Foreign Affairs 47,no.3(1969);总结请参见Eric Anderson, China Restored:The Middle Kingdom Looks to 2020 and Beyond(Santa Barbara, CA:Praeger,2010),xiv。
[376]John K.Fairbank,“Introduction:Varieties of the Chinese Military Ex-perience,”in Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed.Frank A.Kiernan Jr.and John K.Fairbank(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1974),6—7;John K.Fairbank,“A Preliminary Framework,”in The Chinese World Order:Traditional China's Foreign Relations, ed.John K.Fairbank(Cambridge, MA:Harvard U-niversity Press,1968),2,4.
[377]Kissinger, On China,2—3.
[378]Ibid.,9—10,15.基辛格曾是研究世界秩序的学生,他的博士论文以《重建的世界》为名出版,主要分析了维也纳会议。他大加赞赏欧洲大国协调和均势外交的好处,使欧洲获得百年和平。这种全球秩序的外交观念贯穿了基辛格的思想。参见Henry Kissinger, World Order(New York:Penguin Books,2014)。
[379]Kissinger, On China,17,529.
[380]1839年,英国以商务受阻和英国臣民生命受到威胁为由作出派遣舰队去中国的决定,但是鸦片战争真正打响是在1840年。——译者注
[381]该条约在一艘名为“康沃利斯号”的炮舰上签署。该舰沿长江向上航行,在俘获清政府装满税银的驳船后停泊在南京附近的长江上。
[382]中国被迫开放了十多个通商口岸,并割让上海和广州的部分地区给法国和英国。Jonathan D.Spence, The Search for Modern China(New York:W.W.Norton,1990),158—162,179—181;John K.Fairbank, Trade and Diplo-macy on the China Coast:The Opening of Treaty Ports,1842—1854(Cam-bridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1964),102—103,114—133.
[383]Kemp Tolley, Yangtze Patrol:The U.S.Navy in China(Annapolis, MD:Naval Institute Press,2013),30.
[384]Stapleton Roy,“The Changing Geopolitics of East Asia,”working pa-per, Paul Tsai China Center, Yale Law School, July 25,2016,5,https://www.law.yale.edu/system/fles/area/center/china/document/stapletonroy_fnal.pdf.
[385]James L.Hevia,“Looting and Its Discontents:Moral Discourse and the Plunder of Beijing,1900—1901,”in The Boxers, China, and the World, ed.Robert Bickers and R.G.Tiedemann(Lanham, MD:Rowman&Littlefeld,2007),94.
[386]Diana Preston, Besieged in Peking:The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising(London:Constable,1999),31;“Gift from Peking for the Museum of Art:H.G.Squiers to Present Bronzes and Curios to This City,”New York Times, Sep-tember 3,1901,http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html/?res=9A07E7DE153DE433A25750C0A96F9C946097D6CF.
[387]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,114.
[388]Kevin Rudd,“How to Break the‘Mutually Assured Misperception'Be-tween the U.S.and China,’”Hufngton Post, April 20,2015,http://www.huffin-gtonpost.com/kevin-rudd/us-china-relations-kevin-rudd-report_b_7096784.html.
[389]参见Liu He's discussion paper from the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs,“Overcoming the Great Recession:Lessons from China,”July 2014,http://belfercenter.org/publication/24397。
[390]虽然印度自2008年以来平均每年增长约7%,但它不是“主要经济体”,因为它在金融危机时期还不是世界十大经济体之一。
[391]中国官方称“4万亿”人民币,该数字基本与中国官方数字一致。——译者注
[392]美国总统乔治·W.布什和巴拉克·奥巴马提供的经济刺激计划和银行救助基金共计9830亿美元。
[393]值得注意的是,中国的官方和政府公文有目的地选择了他们的经济标准。在公开评估中国经济规模时,官方几乎总是使用市场汇率(MER)来衡量国内生产总值,而不是购买力平价,以使经济规模看起来更小,更不具有威胁性。在闭门私密的场合,在比较中国和美国时,他们使用购买力平价(参见第一章的讨论)。在这种情况下,中国的“两个一百年奋斗目标”是以市场汇率衡量的。以购买力平价衡量,第一个目标早已经实现。
[394]International Monetary Fund,“World Economic Outlook Database,”October 2016.(https://www.daowen.com)
[395]Robert Lawrence Kuhn,“Xi Jinping's Chinese Dream,”New York Times, June 4,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/opinion/global/xi-jinpings-chinese-dream.html.
[396]Osnos,“Born Red.”
[397]Chun Han Wong,“China's Xi Warns Communist Party Not to Waver on Ideology,”Wall Street Journal, July 1,2016,http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-xi-exhorts-communist-party-to-hold-fast-to-marxism-1467380336.
[398]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,121.
[399]参见“Xi:Upcoming CPC Campaign a‘Thorough Cleanup’of Undesir-able Practices,”Xinhua, June 18,2013,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-06/18/c_132465115.htm;Zhao Yinan,“Xi Repeats Anti-Graft Mes-sage to Top Leaders,”China Daily, November 20,2012,http://usa.chinadai-ly.com.cn/epaper/2012-11/20/content_15944726.htm;Macabe Keliher and Hsinchao Wu,“How to Discipline 90 Million People,”Atlantic, April 7,2015,http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/04/xi-jinping-china-corruption-political-culture/389787/。
[400]China Economic Review online corruption database, http://www.chi-naeconomicreview.com/cartography/data-transparency-corruption;“Visualizing China's Anti-Corruption Campaign,”ChinaFile.com, January 21,2016;“Can Xi Jinping's Anti-Corruption Campaign Succeed?”CSIS China Power Project, ht-tp://chinapower.csis.org/can-xi-jinpings-anti-corruption-campaign-succeed/.
[401]Joseph Fewsmith,“Xi Jinping's Fast Start,”China Leadership Monitor, no.41,Spring 2013,http://www.hoover.org/sites/default/fles/uploads/docu-ments/CLM41JF.pdf.
[402]习近平的“中国梦”唤起了人们恢复往日的辉煌(greatness)的观念。这种观念源自中国文学和思想史,至少可追溯到12世纪。这种对复兴的渴望是中国百年耻辱时期主要的政治推动力。清代学者冯桂芬在1860年讨论英法时就在唤起这种想法:“彼何以小而强,我何以大而弱?……中华之聪明智巧,必在诸夷之上……然则有待于夷者,独船坚炮利一事耳。”对于同年开始的“洋务运动”来说,这种观念也是一个希望的源泉,以便在经济上“复兴”中国并且在军事上击退帝国列强。然而,就像反复出现的噩梦一样,这个许诺的梦想(promised dream)在它能够实现之前就被打碎了。参见Ryan Mitchell,“Clearing Up Some Misconceptions About Xi Jinping's‘China Dream,’”Hufng-ton Post, August 20,2015,http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ryan-mitchell/clear-ing-up-some-misconce_b_8012152.html;Jonathan D.Spence, The Search for Modern China(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1990),197。
[403]Didi Kristen Tatlow,“Xi Jinping on Exceptionalism with Chinese Char-acteristics,”New York Times, October 14,2014,http://sinosphere.blogs.ny-times.com/2014/10/14/xi-jinping-on-exceptionalism-with-chinese-characteristics/.
[404]Mark Elliott,“The Historical Vision of the Prosperous Age(sheng-shi),”China Heritage Quarterly, no.29,March 2012,http://www.chinaher-itagequarterly.org/articles.php?searchterm=029_elliott.inc&issue=029.
[405] Jin Kai,“The Chinese Communist Party's Confucian Revival,”Diplo-mat, September 30,2014,http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/the-chinese-com-munist-partys-confucian-revival/.
[406]Geoff Dyer, The Contest of the Century(New York:Vintage Books,2014),150—152.
[407]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,14.
[408]Dexter Roberts,“China Trumpets Its Service Economy,”Bloomberg Businessweek, January 28,2016,http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-28/china-trumpets-its-service-economy.
[409]Gabriel Wildau,“China:The State-Owned Zombie Economy,”Finan-cial Times, February 29,2016,https://www.ft.com/content/253d7eb0-ca6c-11e5-84df-70594b99fc47.
[410]Ben Bland,“China's Robot Revolution,”Financial Times, June 6,2016,https://www.ft.com/content/1dbd8c60-0cc6-11e6-ad80-67655613c2d6.
[411]“Xi Sets Targets for China's Science, Technology Mastery,”Xinhua, May 30,2016,http://news. xinhuanet.com/english/2016-05/30/c_135399691.htm.
[412]Associated Press,“Air Pollution in China Is Killing 4,000 People Every Day, a New Study Finds,”August 13,2015,https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/14/air-pollution-in-china-is-killing-4000-people-every-day-a-new-study-fnds.
[413]World Bank, Cost of Pollution in China:Economic Estimates of Physi-cal Damages(Washington, DC:World Bank,2007),http://documents.world-bank.org/curated/en/782171468027560055/Cost-of-pollution-in-China-economic-estimates-of-physical-damages.
[414]John Siciliano,“China Deploys Green‘SWAT Teams'to Meet Climate Goals,”Washington Examiner, March 19,2016,http://www.washingtonexam-iner.com/china-deploys-green-swat-teams-to-meet-climate-goals/article/2586271.
[415]“China Must Quickly Tackle Rising Corporate Debt, Warns IMF Of-cial,”Reuters, June 10,2016,http://www. reuters.com/article/us-china-imf-debt-idUSKCN0YX029.
[416]Martin Feldstein,“China's Next Agenda,”Project Syndicate, March 29,2016,https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/china-growth-through-pro-market-reforms-by-martin-feldstein-2016-03.
[417]United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, PopulationDivision, World Urbanization Prospects:The 2014 Revision, Highlights(ST/ESA/SER.A/352),https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/fles/wup2014-highlights.pdf.
[418]Martin Feldstein,“China's Latest Five-Year Plan,”Project Syndicate, November 28,2015,https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/china-new-fve-year-plan-by-martin-feldstein-2015-11?barrier=true.
[419]Halford Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality:A Study in the Poli-tics of Reconstruction(New York:Henry Holt,1919),186.
[420]Xi Jinping,“New Asian Security Concept for New Progress in Security Cooperation:Remarks at the Fourth Summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia,”Shanghai, May 21,2014,http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1159951.shtml.
[421]Bill Hayton, The South China Sea(New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,2014),71.
[422]Toshi Yoshihara,“The 1974 Paracels Sea Battle:A Campaign Appraisal,”Naval War College Review 69,no.2(Spring 2016),41.
[423]US Department of Defense,“Asia-Pacifc Maritime Security Strate-gy”(August 2015),16,http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/NDAA%20A-P_Maritime_SecuritY_Strategy-08142015-1300-FINAL-FORMAT.PDF.
[424]Derek Watkins,“What China Has Been Building in the South China Sea,”New York Times, February 29,2016,http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/07/30/world/asia/what-china-has-been-building-in-the-south-china-sea-2016.ht-ml.
[425]US Department of Defense,“Asia-Pacifc Maritime Security Strategy,”17.
[426]美国的贸易在5.3万亿美元总额中占1.2万亿美元。Bonnie Glaser,“Armed Clash in the South China Sea,”Council on Foreign Relations, April 2012,4,http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacifc/armed-clash-south-china-sea/p27883.
[427]Andrei Kokoshin,“2015 Military Reform in the People's Republic of China:Defense, Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues,”Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, October 2016,vi, http://belfercenter.org/publication/27040.
[428]Regina Abrami, William Kirby, and F.Warren McFarlan, Can China Lead?(Boston:Harvard Business Review Press,2014),179.
[429]“President Xi Stresses Development of PLA Army,”Xinhua, July 27, 2016,http://news. xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/27/c_135544941.htm.
[430]Jeremy Page,“For Xi, a‘China Dream'of Military Power,”Wall Street Journal, March 13,2013,http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324128504578348774040546346.
[431]伊拉克的指挥控制系统受到的影响如此之大,以致萨达姆·侯赛因最终被迫让通信员驾驶摩托车将他的命令送到前线。Fred Kaplan, Dark Territo-ry:The Secret History of Cyber War(New York:Simon&Schuster,2016),22—23.
[432]皮尔斯伯里为美国国防部净评估办公室所作研究的部分内容:Mi-chael Pillsbury, China Debates the Future Security Environment(Washington, DC:National Defense University Press,2000)。亦可参见Chinese Views of Fu-ture Warfare, ed.Michael Pillsbury(Washington, DC:National Defense Uni-versity Press,1997)。
[433]正如科科欣所指出的是:“同时控制几个省份的‘主要军区’的指挥官和政治委员,是维护北京中央政权的重要因素。这些指挥官和政治委员由解放军总政治部控制,直接向中央军委主席报告。当出现国内危机的情况下,‘主要军区’的指挥官和政治委员会有很多机会对位于这些地区的省份实施紧急控制……当他们考虑到军事改革的深度时,党和国家高级官员所面临的核心问题之一……是军队在提供更有效利用军事力量追求外交政策利益的能力与保留解放军在解决内部危机中的角色之间的相互关系。”参见Kokoshin,“2015 Military Reform in the People's Republic of China,”22—23,24。
[434]Yang Yong, quoted in Dyer, The Contest of the Century,25.
[435]“中国人民解放军”名字中的“军”(army)是军队的通称,包括空军和海军以及三种地面部队[后三种美国称之为“陆军”(army)]
[436]M.Taylor Fravel,“China's Changing Approach to Military Strategy:The Science of Military Strategy from 2001 to 2013,”in Joe McReynolds, China's Evolving Military Strategy(Washington, DC:Jamestown Foundation,2016),59—62;Toshi Yoshihara and James Holmes, Red Star over the Pacific:China's Rise and the Challenge to U.S.Maritime Strategy(Annapolis, MD:Na-val Institute Press,2010),60.
[437]Holmes and Yoshihara, Red Star over the Pacific,18.
[438]2015年,国防部将“空海一体战”改名为“全球共享空间中的联合和机动联合概念”(JAM-GC),尽管它仍被广泛称为“空海一体战”。Sam Lagrone,“Pentagon Drops Air Sea Battle Name, Concept Lives On,”USNI News, January 20,2015,https://news.usni.org/2015/01/20/pentagon-drops-air-sea-battle-name-concept-lives.
[439]Eric Heginbotham et al.,The U.S.-China Military Scorecard:Forces, Geography, and the Evolving Balance of Power,1996—2017(Santa Monica, CA:RAND Corporation,2015),xxxi, xxix.
[440]Samuel Kim, China, the United Nations, and World Order(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1979),38.
[441]Helen H.Robbins, Our First Ambassador to China:The Life and Corre-spondence of George, Earl of Macartney, and His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself(New York:E.P.Dutton,1908),175.
[442]Alain Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire, trans.Jon Rothschild(New York:Knopf,1992),10.
[443]Kissinger, On China,37.
[444]J.R.Cranmer-Byng, ed.,An Embassy to China;being the journal kept by Lord Macartney during his embassy to the Emperor Ch'ien-lung,1793—1794(Hamden:Archon Books,1963),117.
[445]Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire,170.
[446]Ibid.,220.
[447]Ibid.,206.
[448]Ibid.,227,306.
[449]乾隆皇帝敕谕英吉利国王的圣旨(1793年9月)请见The Search for Modern China:A Documentary Collection, ed.Pei-kai Cheng, Michael Lestz, and Jonathan Spence(New York:Norton,1999),104—106。
[450]Samuel Huntington,“The Clash of Civilizations?,”Foreign Affairs 72,no.3(Summer 1993),22.
[451]Ibid.,24.
[452]Francis Fukuyama,“The End of History?,”The National Interest, no.16(Summer 1989),3—18.
[453]Huntington,“The Clash of Civilizations?,”25.
[454]Ibid.,41.
[455]Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order(New York:Simon&Schuster Paperbacks,2003),225.
[456]Ibid.,169.
[457]Ibid.,234.
[458]Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of a Revolution(New York:Vintage Books,1952),271.
[459]Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations,223.
[460]Ibid.,225.
[461]Jeffrey Goldberg,“The Obama Doctrine,”Atlantic, April 2016,http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/.
[462]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,42.
[463]Harry Gelber, Nations Out of Empires:European Nationalism and the Transformation of Asia(New York:Palgrave,2001),15.
[464]Kevin Rudd,“The Future of U.S.-China Relations Under Xi Jinping:Toward a New Framework of Constructive Realism for a Common Purpose,”Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, April 2015,12,http://belfercenter.org/files/SummaryReportUSChina21.pdf.
[465]William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, Speech in House of Lords, January 20,1775,http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=evans;idno=N11389.0001.001.
[466]Richard Hofstadter, Anti-intellectualism in American Life(New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1963),43.
[467]Kissinger, On China,15.
[468]Ibid.
[469]Thomas Paine, Common Sense:Addressed to the Inhabitants of America(Boston:J.P.Mendum,1856),19.
[470]Neustadt, Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents,29.
[471]Myers v.United States,272 US 52(1926).
[472]Lee Kuan Yew,“Speech at the Abraham Lincoln Medal Award Ceremony,”Washington, DC, October 18,2011,https://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/washington/newsroom/press_statements/2011/201110/press_201110_01.html.
[473]Thomas Jefferson letter to William Hunter, March 11,1790.
[474]Eric X.Li,“A Tale of Two Political Systems,”TED Talk, June 2013,https://www.ted.com/talks/eric_x_li_a_tale_of_two_political_systems/tran-script?language=en.
[475]Kissinger, World Order,236.
[476]Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations,184.
[477]Kissinger, On China,17.
[478]Kissinger, World Order,230.
[479]George Washington,“Address to the members of the Volunteer Associa-tion and other Inhabitants of the Kingdom of Ireland who have lately ar-rived in the City of New York,”December 2,1783,http://founding.com/founders-li-brary/american-political-figures/george-washington/address-to-the-members-of-the-volunteer-association-and-other-inhabitants/.
[480]Yoree Koh,“Study:Immigrants Founded 51%of U.S.Billion-Dollar Startups,”Wall Street Journal, March 17,2016,http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2016/03/17/study-immigrants-founded-51-of-u-s-billion-dollar-startups/.
[481]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,22—23.Of course, this is not entirely accurate:the American continent may have been undeveloped when Europeans arrived, but it was not“empty.”
[482]“Notes from the Chairman:A Conversation with Martin Dempsey,”Foreign Affairs, September/October 2016,https://www. foreignaffairs.com/in-terviews/2016-08-01/notes-chairman.
[483]Kissinger, On China,30.
[484]Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans.Samuel B.Griffith(London:Oxford University Press,1971),92.
[485]Fran?ois Jullien, The Propensity of Things:Toward a History of Efficacy in China, trans.Janet Lloyd(New York:Zone Books,1999),26.
[486]Sun Tzu, The Art of War,95.
[487]Kissinger, On China,23.
[488]David Lai,“Learning from the Stones:A Go Approach to Mastering China's Strategic, Shi,”US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute, May 2004,5,28,http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=378;Kissinger, On China,23—24.
[489]Sun Tzu, The Art of War,14—16.
[490]Clinton,“America's Pacific Century.”
[491]Rudd,“The Future of U.S.-China Relations Under Xi Jinping,”14.
[492]M.Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation:Conflict and Cooper-ation in China's Territorial Disputes(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2008).
[493]为了支持这一说法,一些人引用了柯庆生(Thomas Christensen)的“中国挑战”理论。柯庆生有效地解释了全球经济和政治的变化是如何降低中美之间爆发大国战争的可能性的。但他也承认,这种冲突仍然有可能发生。此外,他认识到,中国不断增长的军事优势将使成功应对双边关系中的挑战(如领土争端)变得更加困难。参见Thomas Christensen, The China Challenge:Shaping the Choices of a Rising Power(New York:W.W.Norton,2015),尤其是第二章(“This Time Should Be Different:China's Rise in a Globalized World”)和第四章(“Why China Still Poses Strategic Challenges”)对这些问题进行了广泛的讨论。
[494]David Gompert, Astrid Cevallos, and Cristina Garafola, War with China:Thinking Through the Unthinkable(Santa Monica, CA:RAND Corporation,2016),48—50,87.
[495]Benjamin Valentino, Final Solutions:Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,2005),88.
[496]P.K.Rose,“Two Strategic Intelligence Mistakes in Korea,1950:Per-ceptions and Reality,”Studies in Intelligence, Fall-Winter 2001,57—65.
[497]T.R.Fehrenbach, This Kind of War:A Study in Unpreparedness(New York:Macmillan,1963),184—196.
[498]正如费伦巴赫(Fehrenbach)所描述的,麦克阿瑟的想法是派遣足够接近中国大陆的海军以激起中国的武力回应,然后可以此作为核武器升级的借口。
[499]Fehrenbach, This Kind of War,192.
[500]Michael Gerson,“The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict:Deterrence, Escala-tion, and the Threat of Nuclear War in 1969,”Center for Naval Analyses, Novem-ber 2010,17,https://www.cna.org/CNA_files/PDF/D0022974.A2.pdf.
[501]Ibid.,16—17,44.
[502]Nicholas Khoo, Collateral Damage:Sino-Soviet Rivalry and the Termi-nation of the Sino-Vietnamese Alliance(New York:Columbia University Press,2011),144.
[503]Kissinger, On China,219.
[504]Kissinger, Diplomacy,723.
[505]Gerson,“The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict,”iii.
[506]Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation,201.
[507]Ibid.
[508]Gerson,“The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict,”24.
[509]参见Wallace Thies and Patrick Bratton,“When Governments Collide in the Taiwan Strait,”Journal of Strategic Studies 27,no.4(December 2004),556—584;Robert Ross,“The 1995—96 Taiwan Strait Confrontation,”Interna-tional Security 25,no.2(Fall 2000),87—123。
[510]参见Jane Perlez,“American and Chinese Navy Ships Nearly Collided in South China Sea,”New York Times, December 14,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/15/world/asia/chinese-and-american-ships-nearly-collide-in-south-china-sea.html。
[511]Henry Kissinger, A World Restored:Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problems of Peace,1812—22(Boston:Houghton Mifflin,1957),331.
[512]正如亨利·基辛格在2014年接受美国国际公共广播电台(PRI)的《世界》(The World)栏目的采访时所说:“美国自第二次世界大战以来已经卷入了五场战争,但只有其中一次达到了既定目标;另一场战争以僵局结束,剩下三次则是我们单方面撤退。我所指的是第一次伊拉克战争(海湾战争)——我们实现了我们的目标;朝鲜战争——以一种僵局告终;还有越南战争、第二次伊拉克战争和阿富汗战争——我们单方面退出了。”参见“Henry Kissinger Would Not Have Supported the Iraq War If He'd Known What He Knows Now,”PRI, Sep-tember 11,2014,http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-09-11/henry-kissinger-would-not-have-supported-iraq-war-if-hed-known-what-he-knows-now。
[513]“Remarks by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates at the U. S.Military A-cademy at West Point,”February 25,2011,http://archive.defense.gov/Spee-ches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=1539.
[514]Gulf of Tonkin,东京湾,是北部湾的旧称。——译者注
[515]Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed.Peter Paret, trans.Michael Eliot Howard(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1989),101.
[516]Robert McNamara, In Retrospect:The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam,2nd ed.(New York:Vintage,1996),128—143.
[517]参见David Sanger, Confront and Conceal:Obama's Secret Wars and Surprising Use of American Power(New York:Crown Publishers,2012)。
[518]“Kaspersky Lab Discovers Vulnerable Industrial Control Systems Likely Belonging to Large Organizations,”Kaspersky Lab, press release, July 11,2016,http://usa. kaspersky.com/about-us/press-center/press-releases/2016/Kaspersky-Lab-Discovers-Vulnerable-Industrial-Control-Systems-Likely-Belong-ing-to-Large-Organizations.
[519]Herman Kahn, On Escalation:Metaphors and Scenarios(New York:Penguin,1965),39.
[520]从本节小标题开始,本章余下内容均是作者根据自己的假设推演的中美可能会开战的五种场景。——译者注
[521]“杀伤链”(kill chain)是军事术语,用以描述攻击的各个阶段,主要包括发现、定位、跟踪、瞄准、打击和最终摧毁目标等几个阶段。——译者注
[522]Audrey Wang,“The Road to Food Security,”Taiwan Today, July 1,2011,http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=167684&CtNode=124;“Taiwan Lacks Food Security Strategy,”Taipei Times, July 26,2010,http://www.tai-peitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2010/07/26/2003478832.
[523]参见Ross,“The 1995—96 Taiwan Strait Confrontation,”87—123。
[524]这一场景基于兰德公司为《外交政策》杂志组织的一次军棋推演。参见Dan De Luce and Keith Johnson,“How FP Stumbled Into a War with China—and Lost,”Foreign Policy, January 15,2016,http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/01/15/how-fp-stumbled-into-a-war-with-china-and-lost/。
[525]奥巴马总统在2014年明确表示:“我们对日本安全的条约承诺是绝对的,(《美日共同防御条约》)第5条涵盖日本管理的所有领土,包括钓鱼岛。”特朗普总统就职后不久便重新确认了这一承诺。参见“Joint Press Conference with President Obama and Prime Minister Abe of Japan,”April 24,2014,https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/24/joint-press-conference-president-obama-and-prime-minister-abe-japan;“Joint Statement from President Donald J.Trump and Prime Minister Shinzo Abe,”February 10,2017,https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/02/10/joint-statement-presi-dent-donald-j-trump-and-prime-minister-shinzo-abe。
[526]Jeremy Page and Jay Solomon,“China Warns North Korean Nuclear Threat Is Rising,”Wall Street Journal, April 22,2015,http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-warns-north-korean-nuclear-threat-is-rising-1429745706;Joel Wit and Sun Young Ahn,“North Korea's Nuclear Futures:Technology and Strate-gy,”U.S.-Korea Institute at SAIS,2015,http://38north.org/wp-content/up-loads/2015/02/NKNF-NK-Nuclear-Futures-Wit-0215.pdf.
[527]Eli Lake,“Preparing for North Korea's Inevitable Collapse,”Bloomberg, September 20,2016,https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-09-20/preparing-for-north-korea-s-inevitable-collapse.
[528]“Trade in Goods with China,”US Census, http://www. census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5700.html.
[529]Michael Lewis, Flash Boys:A Wall Street Revolt(New York:W.W.Norton,2014),56—88.
[530]Andrew Ross Sorkin, Too Big to Fail:The Inside Story of How Wall Street and Washington Fought to Save the Financial System—and Themselves, up-dated ed.(New York:Penguin Books,2011),59.
[531]Andrew Ross Sorkin et al.,“As Credit Crisis Spiraled, Alarm Led to Action,”New York Times, October 1,2008,http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/02/business/02crisis.html.
[532]David Hambling,“How Active Camouflage Will Make Small Drones Invisi-ble,”Popular Mechanics, November 14,2015,http://www.popular mechanics.com/flight/drones/a18190/active-camouflage-make-small-drones-invisible/.
[533]“在14世纪黑死病发生前夕,葡萄牙大约有150万人口,平均每平方千米大约有17个居民。然而,在1348年,这个数字下降到二分之一到三分之一之间,并在这个水平上保持轻微的变化,直到大约在1460年,葡萄牙的人口数量才开始复苏。”参见Armindo de Sousa,“Portugal,”in The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol.7:c.1415-c.1500,ed.Christopher Allmand(Cam-bridge:Cambridge University Press,1998),627。令人难以置信的是,更多的葡萄牙人可能死于鼠疫:“根据记载,葡萄牙的鼠疫死亡率估计高达三分之二,甚至十分之九。”参见Peter Linehan,“Castile, Navarre and Portugal,”in The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol.6:c.1300-c.1415,ed.Michael Jones(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000),637。
[534]1415年,葡萄牙国王若昂一世占领了休达(Ceuta),该地区成了葡萄牙人的领地。休达位于非洲西北部地区马格里布(al-Mag·rib)的最北部,在直布罗陀海峡附近的地中海沿岸,与摩洛哥接壤。它的面积大约为18.5平方千米。——译者注
[535]A.R.Disney, A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire from Be-ginnings to 1807,vol.2:The Portuguese Empire(New York:Cambridge University Press,2009),40.
[536]H.V.Livermore,“Portuguese Expansion,”in The New Cambridge Modern History,2nd ed.,vol.1:The Renaissance,1493—1520,ed.G.R.Potter(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1957),420.
[537]Joseph Pérez,“Avance portugués y expansion castellana en torno a 1492,”in Las Relaciones entre Portugal y Castilla en la época de los Descubri-mientos y la Expansión Colonial, ed.Ana María Carabias Torres(Salamanca, Spain:Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca,1994),107.
[538]摩尔人(Moors),指中世纪伊比利亚半岛(今西班牙和葡萄牙)、西西里岛、撒丁尼亚、马耳他、科西嘉岛、马格里布和西非的穆斯林居民。历史上,摩尔人主要指在伊比利亚半岛的伊斯兰征服者。711年,摩尔人入侵基督教的伊比利亚半岛(今天的西班牙和葡萄牙)。——译者注
[539]格拉纳达是今天西班牙安达卢西亚自治区内格拉纳达省的省会,曾是摩尔人在伊比利亚半岛的最后一个堡垒。——译者注
[540]Alan Smith, Creating a World Economy:Merchant Capitalism, Colonial-ism, and World Trade,1400—1825(Boulder, CO:Westview Press,1991),75.
[541]Christopher Bell, Portugal and the Quest for the Indies(London:Consta-ble,1974),180.
[542]值得注意的是,斐迪南和伊莎贝拉在哥伦布的第一次尝试中,拒绝了他的赞助请求,最终重新考虑并同意资助他的航行。
[543]葡萄牙已经无力负担二十年前与卡斯蒂利亚王国作战的高昂代价。卡斯蒂利亚王国的继承战争在1475年至1479年间打响,就卡斯蒂利亚—阿拉贡联盟是否会被允许的问题进行了战争。如果卡斯蒂利亚内战重新认可伊莎贝拉作为下一个卡斯蒂利亚女王,联盟将继续存在。如果胡安娜(Juana)的支持者(嫁给葡萄牙国王阿方索五世(king Alfonso V))赢得了战争,卡斯蒂利亚将与葡萄牙合并。当然,葡萄牙是站在胡安娜的宝座上而不是伊莎贝拉的。因此,我们不认为这是修昔底德陷阱的范式,因为葡萄牙并非害怕与阿拉贡统一的卡斯蒂利亚王国会作为一股崛起的力量入侵葡萄牙,而是葡萄牙人企图把卡斯蒂利亚王国纳入版图。有关进一步的细节,见附录1的注释2。
[544]Disney, A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire,48.
[545]在他的两个任期内,奥巴马授权在阿富汗、伊拉克、叙利亚、利比亚、巴基斯坦、索马里和也门进行军事行动。同时,美国特种作战部队为打击至少8个其他国家的恐怖分子提供了行动支持。参见Mark Landler,“For Obama, an Unexpected Legacy of Two Full Terms at War,”New York Times, May 14,2016,http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/15/us/politics/obama-as-wartime-president-has-wrestled-with-protecting-nation-and-troops.html。
[546]在尼加拉瓜的案例中,当法院作出有利于尼加拉瓜的裁决,判决美国进行赔偿时,美国拒绝了,并否决了6项联合国安理会要求其遵守法院裁决的决议。美国驻联合国大使珍妮·柯克帕特里克(Jeane Kirkpatrick)在驳回法院的意见时,恰当地总结了华盛顿对这一问题的看法,认为这是一个“半合法、半司法、半政治的机构,国家有时可以接受,有时可以不接受”。参见Graham Al-lison,“Of Course China, Like All Great Powers, Will Ignore an International Le-gal Verdict,”Diplomat, July 11,2016,http://thediplomat.com/2016/07/of-course-china-like-all-great-powers-will-ignore-an-international-legal-ver-dict/。
[547]Jacob Heilbrunn,“The Interview:Henry Kissinger,”National Interest, August 19,2015,http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-interview-henry-kissin-ger-13615.
[548]Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed:A Study in Statecraft(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1995),207.根据最近解密的内阁办公室文件,撒切尔在1990年警告布什政府说,英国与苏联的联盟是在欧洲保持“德国权力的基本平衡”的需要。参见Hen-ry Mance,“Thatcher Saw Soviets as Allies Against Germany,”Financial Times, December 29,2016,https://www.ft.com/content/dd74c884-c6b1-11e6-9043-7e34c07b46ef。
[549]Jussi M.Hanhimaki,“Europe's Cold War,”in The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History, ed.Dan Stone(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2012),297.
[550]John Lanchester,“The Failure of the Euro,”New Yorker, October 24,2016,www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/24/the-failure-of-the-euro.
[551]Andrew Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe:Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1998),407.
[552]1989年,在德国美因茨的演讲中,布什宣称:“永远不能否认对自由的热爱。世界已经等待了足够长的时间。这次时机是对的。让我们一起把欧洲变得完整而自由。”参见George H.W.Bush,“A Europe Whole and Free,”Remarks to the Citizens in Mainz, Germany, May 31,1989,http://usa.usem-bassy.de/etexts/ga6-890531.htm。
[553]International Monetary Fund,“World Economic Outlook Database.”
[554]Helga Haftendorn, Coming of Age:German Foreign Policy Since 1945(Lanham, MD:Rowman&Littlefield,2006),319.
[555]类似的问题可以参考第二次世界大战后现代日本的反常现象。
[556]Bradford Perkins, The Great Rapprochement:England and the United States,1895—1914(New York:Atheneum,1968),9.
[557]参见“GDP Levels in 12 West European Countries,1869—1918,”“GDP Levels in Western Offshoots,1500—1899,”和“GDP Levels in Western Offshoots,1900—1955,”in Maddison, The World Economy,427,462—463。
[558]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,200—202,242—244.
[559]英国在一定程度上受到亲美舆论的劝阻。Ernest R.May and Zhou Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”in Power and Restraint:A Shared Vision for the U.S.-China Relationship, ed.Richard Rosecrance and Gu Guo-liang(New York:Public Affairs,2009),13.
[560]Schoultz, Beneath the United States,115.
[561]May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”12.
[562]事实上,英国制定了一项条约来对未来所有的分歧进行仲裁,美国政府签署了这项条约,但美国参议院拒绝了。Perkins, Great Rapprochement,12—19;J.A.S.Grenville, Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy:The Close of the Nineteenth Century(London:Athlone Press,1964),54—73;May, ImperialDemocracy,52—53,56—59,60—65.
[563]Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,339.
[564]Ibid.,351.
[565]May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”12—13.
[566]塞尔伯恩讲述了他对费舍尔激烈言论的些许震惊:“他说……他不会浪费一个人或花一英镑来保卫加拿大。他也确实这样做了。”在费舍尔重新分配舰队的情况下,皇家海军在美洲的存在数量急剧减少。Friedberg, The Wea-ry Titan,161—198.两年内,加拿大的土地防御由加拿大人自己承担,最后的英国军队撤出加拿大。Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North A-merica,359—389.
[567]Selbourne made this comment in 1901.Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,351.
[568]“两强标准”正式记录于英国1889年《海军防御法案》(Naval Defense Act),即英国海军实力不应低于任何两个海军强国加起来的海军力量。——译者注
[569]塞尔伯恩向内阁成员明确表示:“我认为现在的标准才是真正的标准,而不是任何其他公开发表的标准。”Friedberg, The Weary Titan,169—180.
[570]Ibid.,161—165,169—174,184—190.
[571]Anne Orde, The Eclipse of Great Britain:The United States and British Imperial Decline,1895—1956(New York:Saint Martin's Press,1996),22.
[572]May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”13.一些美国人也相信一种天然的英美关系的交融,尽管美国人口比英国要少。
[573]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,38;May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”13.
[574]May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”11—17.
[575]Ibid.,14—17.
[576]George Will,“America's Lost Ally,”Washington Post, August 17,2011,https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/americas-lost-ally/2011/08/16/gIQAYxy8LJ_story.html?utm_term=.3188d2889da3.
[577]Paul Samuelson, Economics:An Introductory Analysis,6th ed.(New York:McGraw-Hill,1964),807.
[578]Churchill, The Second World War, vol.3:The Grand Alliance(Bos-ton:Houghton Mifflin,1950),331.
[579]James Forrestal letter to Homer Ferguson, May 14,1945.See Walter Millis, ed.,The Forrestal Diaries(New York:Viking Press,1951),57.
[580]“长电报”的全文可以从乔治华盛顿大学的国家安全档案中获得,http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/coldwar/documents/episode-1/kennan.htm。
[581]Bernard Brodie et al.,The Absolute Weapon:Atomic Power and World Order, ed.Bernard Brodie(New York:Harcourt, Brace,1946).
[582]Mark Harrison,“The Soviet Union After 1945:Economic Recovery and Political Repression,”Past the Present 210,suppl.6(2011),103—120.
[583]参见“GDP Levels in Former Eastern Europe and USSR,1820—1949”and“GDP Levels in Former Eastern Europe and USSR,1950—2002,”in Maddi-son, The World Economy,476—477。
[584]Robert Gates, From the Shadows:The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War(New York:Simon&Schuster,1996),29.
[585]美国高级官员在冷战的前十年至少考虑过两次预防性战争。随着争论的进行,预防性战争对于迫使苏联接受国际核武器控制至关重要,并能在苏联发展强大的核能力之前实现持久和平。在1950年初的朝鲜战争中,海军部长弗兰西斯·马休斯宣称:“为了和平,我们应该愿意,并宣布我们的意图,付出任何代价,甚至是战争的代价,迫使苏联进行和平合作。”1954年,在担任原子能机构主席后不久,戈登·迪恩(Gordon Dean)写道:“我们作为自由世界的国家,能允许苏联人达到如此的实力地位吗?为了达到这个目标,苏联会这样做的,所有向往自由的人们都不会否认苏联拥有这种可怕的能力,但当和平的希望变得渺茫时,人们会采取行动,迫使苏联打开铁幕,停止她的巨大武器计划……很明显,这是1953年到1954年的大问题。”最终,无论是杜鲁门还是艾森豪威尔都没有接受这些论点,而杜鲁门则非常讽刺地说:“除了和平,你不会用战争‘阻止’任何东西。”
[586]正如伯纳德·布罗迪(Bernard Brodie)所说:“到目前为止,我军的主要目的是赢得战争。从现在起,它的主要目的必须是避免战争,除此之外几乎没有其他有用的用途。”参见Brodie et al.,The Absolute Weapon,76。
[587]乔治·马歇尔在哈佛大学的演讲文本可以从经合组织(OECD)获得,http://www.oecd.org/general/themarshallplanspeechatharvarduniversity5june-1947.htm;“美国国家安全委员会第68号文件”的文本,“United States Objec-tives and Programs for National Security,”可以从美国科学家联合会获得,http://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsc-hst/nsc-68.htm。有关美国战后国家安全战略和表现的详细概述,参见Graham Allison,“National Security Strategy for the 1990s,”in America's Global Interests:A New Agenda, ed.Edward Hamilton(New York:W.W.Norton,1989),199—211。
[588]Clausewitz, On War,87.
[589]Graham Allison,“Second Look:Lesson of the Cuban Missile Crisis,”Boston Globe, October 26,1987,http://belfercenter.org/publication/1334/sec-ond_look.html.
[590]John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace:Inquiries into the History of the Cold War(New York:Oxford University Press,1987),237—241.
[591]关于冷战期间美国战略和干涉主义形成的权威历史,参见John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment:A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American Na-tional Security Policy(New York:Oxford University Press,1982),and Gaddis's The Cold War:A New History(New York:Penguin),2005。关于苏联和美国在这一时期对第三世界国家的干预的确切描述,参见Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War:Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times(Cam-bridge:Cambridge University Press,2005)。关于美国冷战期间旨在改变国外政权的秘密行动有启发性的叙述历史,参见Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow:America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq(New York:Times Books,2006),111—216。
[592]Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff, This Time Is Different:Eight Centuries of Financial Folly(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2009).
[593]参见Howard Weinroth,“Norman Angell and The Great Illusion:An Episode in Pre-1914 Pacifism,”Historical Journal 17,no.3(September 1974),551—574.
[594]Harvard Nuclear Study Group, Living with Nuclear Weapons(Cam-bridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1983),43—44.
[595]20世纪的后半期出现了一系列案例,如果修昔底德在世,将会把他的重点转移到国家面临的变化中去,而不是整体的权力平衡,即军事力量的决定性维度。在第七个案例中,当一个竞争者站在获得核武器的门槛上,并且及时地构成一个真正的存在威胁的核武库时,核武装的对手认真考虑先发制人的攻击。1949年底,在苏联测试其第一颗原子弹之后,美国空军参谋长敦促杜鲁门总统授权“先发制人的进攻”来解除莫斯科的武装。当中国接近核临界点时,苏联计划进攻中国,甚至向美国咨询这一选择。如印度和中国、巴基斯坦和印度、朝鲜和美国[最近退休的国防部长阿什顿·卡特(Ashton Carter)强烈建议]的战争一样。只有一个国家执行了这样的计划:以色列。在一个“积极的反扩散政策”下,它在1981年摧毁了一个伊拉克核反应堆,在2007年摧毁了叙利亚核反应堆,并继续设计一个威胁攻击伊朗的核计划。在这条故事线中,我们听到了第一次世界大战的回声。俄国急于完成主要的新铁路线,使其迅速向德国边境转移庞大的军队,这使德国总参谋部惊恐不安。建设完成后,如果发生战争,德国将被迫同时在东西方作战。如今,网络战略家们开始寻找突破,例如,可以允许一个国家关闭对手的核发射系统——创造类似的先发制人的攻击动机。
[596]一种以确保相互摧毁(即相互威慑)为基础的核政策,认为核战争的结果是同归于尽,强调加强第二次核打击的能力,以遏制对方发动核战争。——译者注
[597]Ronald Reagan,“Statement on the 40th Anniversary of the Bombing of Hiroshima,”August 6,1985,UCSB American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3897.
[598]“只有俄罗斯和中国有能力在美国领土上进行大规模弹道导弹袭击,但这不太可能,这不是美国弹道导弹防御系统的重点。”参见US Department of Defense,“Ballistic Missile Defense Review Report,”February 2010,4,http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/features/defenseReviews/BMDR/BMDR_as_of_26JAN10_0630_for_web.pdf。
[599]Winston Churchill,“Never Despair,”House of Commons, March 1,1955,http://www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/never-despair.
[600]Philip Taubman,“Gromyko Says Mao Wanted Soviet A-Bomb Used on G.I.'s,”New York Times, February 22,1988,http://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/22/world/gromyko-says-mao-wanted-soviet-a-bomb-used-on-gi-s.html?pagewanted=all.
[601]Susan Heavey,“Romney:Obama Going in‘Wrong Direction'on Chi-na,”Reuters, February 16,2012,http://www.reuters.com/article/usa-cam-paign-china-idUSL2E8DG26A20120216.
[602]Michael Warren,“Romney on China's Currency Manipulation,”Weekly Standard, October 12,2011,http://www.weeklystandard.com/romney-on-chi-nas-currency-manipulation/article/595779.
[603]Nick Gass,“Trump:‘We Can't Continue to Allow China to Rape Our Country,'”Politico, May 2,2016,http://www.politico.com/blogs/2016-gop-primary-live-updates-and-results/2016/05/trump-china-rape-america-222689.
[604]其中利用这个词语形容美中关系的包括Ian Bremmer,“China vs.America:Fight of the Century,”Prospect, April 2010,http://www.prospectmag-azine.co.uk/magazine/china-vs-america-fight-of-the-century;David Rapkin and William Thompson,“Will Economic Interdependence Encourage China's and India's Peaceful Ascent?”in Strategic Asia 2006—2007:Trade, Interdependence, and Security, ed.Ashley J.Tellis and Michael Wills(Seattle:National Bureau of Asian Research,2006),359;and James Dobbins, David C.Gompert, David A.Shlapak, and Andrew Scobell, Conflict with China:Prospects, Conse-quences, and Strategies for Deterrence(Santa Monica, CA:RAND Corpora-tion,2011),8—9,http://www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/OP344.ht-ml。
[605]当尼克松使用流行的文化表达时,实际上他指的是弗兰肯斯坦的怪物。参见William Safire,“The Biggest Vote,”New York Times, May 18,2000,http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/18/opinion/essay-the-biggest-vote.html。
[606]Belfer Center estimates, based on data(1980—2016)from International Monetary Fund,“World Economic Outlook Database,”October 2016.
[607]Kissinger, Diplomacy,812.
[608]Graham Allison and Niall Ferguson,“Establish a White House Council of Historical Advisers Now,”Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, September 2016,http://belfercenter.org/project/applied-history-project.
[609]为了提醒我们类比推理的危险,梅坚持认为,当一个先例或类似物看起来特别引人注目时,人们应该停顿一下,在页面中间画一条线,并将“相似”和“不同”分别列为列标题。如果无法在每个标题下列出三个显著特点,他们就会服用阿司匹林并咨询专业历史学家。
[610]Henry Kissinger, White House Years(New York:Little, Brown,1979),54.
[611]Allison and Ferguson,“Establish a White House Council.”
[612]20世纪90年代中期,由国际安全事务助理秘书长约瑟夫·奈起草的“美国国防部的东亚—太平洋安全战略”提出了一个“既接触又提防”的说法。一方面,它认为,如果美国把中国当作敌人,我们将确信有一个敌人。因此,它建议中国参与并融入国际体系。同时,它认识到这种努力失败的巨大风险。因此,另一方面,该战略要求通过加强与日本的关系和维持“10万名军事人员来进行对冲……促进我们的区域战略利益,并提供美国承诺和参与不减的证据”。参见Department of Defense, The United States Security Strategy for the East Asia—Pacific Region,1998,59—60。
[613]有关其演变的概述,参见Richard Weixing Hu,“Assessing the‘New Model of Major Power Relations’Between China and the United States,”in Handbook of US-China Relations, ed.Andrew T.H.Tan(Northampton, MA:Edward Elgar Publishing,2016),222—242。
[614]Robert Zoellick,“Whither China:From Membership to Responsibility;Remarks to the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations,”New York City, September 21,2005,https://2001-2009.state.gov/s/d/former/zoellick/rem/53682.htm.虽然有些人误解佐利克说中国是一个负责任的利益相关者,但他很清楚这是一个愿望,而不是一个成就。
[615]Kissinger, Diplomacy,812.
[616]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,13,3.
[617]Kissinger, Diplomacy,410—416.
[618]查尔斯·格拉泽提倡这样一种“大交易”,参见Charles Glaser,“A U.S.-China Grand Bargain?,”International Security 39,no.5(Spring 2015),49—90。
[619]Rudd, The Future of U.S.-China Relations Under Xi Jinping,14.第7章中更详细地叙述了陆克文对于中国领导人如何看待美国的分析。
[620]在1978年,邓小平针对钓鱼岛僵局说:“如果这个问题被搁置一段时间,如10年,没有关系。我们这一代人是没有足够的智慧去寻找这个问题的共同语言。我们的下一代肯定会更聪明。他们肯定会找到一个人人都能接受的解决办法。”参见M.Taylor Fravel,“Explaining Stability in the Senkaku(Di-aoyu)Islands Dispute,”in Getting the Triangle Straight:Managing China-Ja-pan-US Relations, ed.Gerald Curtis, Ryosei Kokubun, and Wang Jisi(Tokyo:Japan Center for International Exchange,2010),157。
[621]莱尔·戈德斯坦在他的“合作螺旋”概念中探索了这些内容和其他思想,参见Lyle Goldstein, Meeting China Halfway:How to Defuse the Emerging US-China Rivalry(Washington, DC:Georgetown University Press,2015)。
[622]关于习近平的这一概念的叙述,参见Cheng Li and Lucy Xu,“Chinese Enthusiasm and American Cynicism over the‘New Type of Great Power Rela-tions,’”China-US Focus, December 4,2014,http://www.chinausfocus.com/foreign-policy/chinese-enthusiasm-and-american-cynicism-over-the-new-type-of-great-power-relations/。虽然奥巴马政府官员没有正式拒绝习近平的建议,但在2014年底,中国开始在南海建设岛屿之后,总统和他的助手们停止使用这一用语。参见Jane Perlez,“China's‘New Type’of Ties Fails to Sway Obama,”New York Times, November 9,2014,https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/10/world/asia/chinas-new-type-of-ties-fails-to-sway-obama.html。
[623]Jimmy Orr,“Reagan and Gorbachev Agreed to Fight UFOs,”Christian Science Monitor, April 24,2009,http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/The-Vote/2009/0424/reagan-and-gorbachev-agreed-to-fight-ufos.
[624]参见Graham Allison,“The Step We Still Haven't Taken to Create a Nuke-Free World,”Atlantic, March 23,2014,https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/03/the-step-we-still-havent-taken-to-create-a-nuke-free-world/284597/。
[625]参见Graham Allison, Nuclear Terrorism:The Ultimate Preventable Ca-tastrophe(New York:Henry Holt,2004)。
[626]Susan Hockfield,“The 21st Century's Technology Story:The Conver-gence of Biology with Engineering and the Physical Sciences,”Edwin L.Godkin Lecture, John F.Kennedy Forum, Harvard Kennedy School of Government, March 12,2014,iop.harvard.edu/forum/21st-centurys-technology-story-conver-gence-biology-engineering-and-physical-sciences.
[627]参见World at Risk:The Report of the Commission on the Prevention of WMD Proliferation and Terrorism(New York:Vintage Books,2008)。
[628]对《巴黎协定》及其随附的个别国家承诺(INDCs)的性质分析指出:“2030年后将全球变暖限制在目前INDCs水平低于2摄氏度的挑战是令人畏惧的。保持合理的机会达到将气温上升维持在2摄氏度以下需要大幅度进步或是通过国家、地方以及非国家行为,额外地减低目前的个别国家承诺的水平。”Joeri Rogelj et al.,“Paris Agreement Climate Proposals Need a Boost to Keep Warming Well Below 2℃,”Nature 534,June 2016,631,636,http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v534/n7609/full/nature18307.html.
[629]关于这方面可能性的探索,参见Kishore Mahbubani and Lawrence Summers,“The Fusion of Civilizations,”Foreign Affairs, May/June 2016,ht-tps://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-04-18/fusion-civilizations。
[630]Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow, Essence of Decision:Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis,2nd ed.(New York:Longman,1999).
[631]John F.Kennedy,“Commencement Address at American University,”June 10,1963,https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/BWC7I4C9QUmL-G9J6I8oy8w.aspx.
[632]参见Robert Ellsworth, Andrew Goodpaster, and Rita Hauser, America's National Interests:A Report from the Commission on America's National Interests (Washington, DC:Report for the Commission on America's National Interests,2000)。
[633]Sun Tzu, The Art of War,84.
[634]Whittaker Chambers,“A Witness,”in Conservatism in America Since 1930:A Reader, ed.Gregory Schneider(New York:New York University Press,2003),141.
[635]钱伯斯是苏联叛逃的间谍,后来成为一个狂热的反共分子,并于1984年被里根总统授予自由勋章。
[636]David Remnick,“Going the Distance:On and Off the Road with Barack Obama,”New Yorker, January 27,2014,http://www.newyorker.com/maga-zine/2014/01/27/going-the-distance-david-remnick.
[637]Allison, Blackwill, and Wyne, Lee Kuan Yew,10.
[638]Niall Ferguson, Civilization:The West and the Rest(New York:Pen-guin,2011),12.
[639]即旧西班牙王国。——译者注
[640]Pérez,“Avance portugués y expansion castellana en torno a 1492,”107.
[641]在我们将此案例作为“无战争”结果的陈述中,值得一提的是,葡萄牙人确实在卡斯蒂利亚王位继承战争中进行了斗争,这场冲突是在1475年至1479年之间就卡斯蒂利亚阿拉贡联盟是否被允许的问题展开的。如果这场卡斯蒂利亚内战再次确认与阿拉贡王国斐迪南结婚的伊莎贝拉成为下一位卡斯蒂利亚女王,那么这个联盟将会继续存在。如果胡安娜的支持者(与葡萄牙国王阿方索五世结婚)获胜,卡斯蒂利亚将与葡萄牙统一。当然,葡萄牙是为了将胡安娜带到王位而战的。因此,我们将这场战争理解为葡萄牙企图吞并卡斯蒂利亚作为自己的遗产,而不是卡斯蒂利亚与阿拉贡的统一引发了葡萄牙的侵略,从而将这场战争定义为修昔底德陷阱。还有另一个问题将这场战争与1494年的修昔底德陷阱案分开。在17世纪70年代,葡萄牙的海外帝国以及由此产生的财富增长速度远高于卡斯蒂利亚。在战争之前,葡萄牙在西非的“黄金海岸”发现黄金的消息已经散布开来,同时葡萄牙在亚速尔群岛和佛得角的殖民农业利润丰厚也广为人知。战前发布的一系列罗马教皇诏书批准了葡萄牙人控制这些土地。葡萄牙进入战争后,伊莎贝拉女王袭击了葡萄牙在非洲的领地,试图削弱葡萄牙的实力。这些努力最终都没有成功,葡萄牙在战争结束时成为了占主导地位的殖民大国。这一统治地位在1479年的《阿尔卡索瓦条约》(Treaty of Alcá?ovas)中得到巩固。因此,虽然我们强调的1492年“无战争”情景清楚地显示了在西班牙崛起威胁葡萄牙统治的阶段西葡双方的谈判,卡斯蒂利亚王位继承战争是在两个权力都不断增长的时代进行的:尽管西班牙在欧洲大陆不断获得领土,但葡萄牙殖民地的崛起威胁到了西班牙的海外扩张。
[642]Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion,1400—1668 (London:Routledge,2005),56.
[643]Christopher Bell, Portugal and the Quest for the Indies(London:Consta-ble,1974),180.
[644]Alexander Zukas,“The Treaty of Tordesillas,”in Encyclopedia of West-ern Colonialism Since 1450(Detroit:Macmillan Reference,2007),1088.
[645]Bell, Portugal and the Quest for the Indies,183.
[646]Stephen Bown,1494:How a Family Feud in Medieval Spain Divided the World in Half(New York:Thomas Dunne Books,2012),146—147.
[647]考虑到当时人们对美洲地理的了解甚少,国王约翰对教皇分界线的坚定立场是难以理解的。到了1494年,双方都没有确切地知道美洲是否存在,更不用说知道现代巴西的一部分是位于东经46度。然而,克里斯托弗·贝尔(Christopher Bell)假设1494年之前大西洋的葡萄牙探险家在偏离既定航线时,可能意外发现了土地,然后回来告诉国王。因此,国王约翰对1493年的罗马教皇诏书提出质疑,可能是因为“他已经知道南半球有横跨大西洋的土地,无论是岛屿还是陆地,它都适合被殖民化,并且它在西经36度附近被发现”。Bell, Portugal and the Quest for the Indies,186.
[648]Disney, A History of Portugal,48.
[649]斐迪南·麦哲伦(Ferdinand Magellan)1521年的环球航行显示,哥伦布实际上并未找到向东印度群岛的西行路线,而是一个新的广阔的美洲大陆。
[650]Bown,1494,155.
[651]事实上,它是如此有效,以至于推动了第二个类似条约的产生。1529年,葡萄牙和西班牙通过《萨拉戈萨条约》(Treaty of Zaragoza)解决了摩鹿加群岛主权的分歧,这是第二条将葡萄牙与西班牙领土分开的经线,尽管这次是在太平洋地区。
[652]Jonathan Hart, Empires and Colonies(Malden, MA:Polity Press,2008),28.
[653]Rodríguez-Salgado,“The Hapsburg-Valois Wars,”380.
[654]Ibid.,378.与穆斯林“异教徒”进行战争是神圣罗马皇帝所固有的责任。正如政治科学家戴尔·科普兰(Dale Copeland)说的那样,弗朗索瓦预测即将到来的冲突的能力,使得其有意对哈布斯堡帝国发起预防性战争以阻止其崛起。The Origins of Major War(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,2000),215.
[655]Henry Kamen, Spain,1469—1714(New York:Routledge,2014),65;Copeland, The Origins of Major War,381.
[656]John Lynch, Spain Under the Hapsburgs, vol.1(Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,1964),88.
[657]Robert Knecht, Francis I(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1982),72.
[658]Rodríguez-Salgado,“The Hapsburg-Valois Wars,”400.
[659]Brendan Simms, Europe:The Struggle for Supremacy(New York:Bas-ic Books,2013),10.
[660] Halil I nalcιk, The Ottoman Empire:The Classical Age,1300—1600(London:Phoenix Press,2001),35.
[661]Caroline Finkel, Osman's Dream:The Story of the Ottoman Empire,1300—1923(New York:Basic Books,2006),58.
[662]Andrew Hess,“The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt(1517)and the Begin-ning of the Sixteenth-Century World War,”International Journal of Middle East Studies 4,no.1,67;Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire,1300—1650(New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009),293.
[663]Hess,“The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt,”70.
[664]Ibid.,55.
[665]Richard Mackenney, Sixteenth-Century Europe:Expansion and Conflict(New York:Palgrave Macmillan,1993),243.
[666]Simms, Europe,11.
[667]Imber, The Ottoman Empire,54.
[668]Geoffrey Parker, Europe in Crisis,1598—1648(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1979),70.
[669]Ibid.,210—211.
[670]Michael Roberts,“Sweden and the Baltic,1611—1654,”in The New Cambridge Modern History,2nd ed.,vol.4,ed.J.P.Cooper(New York:Cambridge University Press,1970),392—393.
[671]Samuel Rawson Gardiner, The Thirty Years'War,1618—1648(Lon-don:Longmans, Green,1912),105.
[672]Peter Wilson, The Thirty Years War:Europe's Tragedy(Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,2009),431.
[673]Erik Ringmar,“Words That Govern Men:A Cultural Explanation of the Swedish Intervention into the Thirty Years War”(PhD diss.,Yale University,1993),157.
[674]Simms, Europe,15.
[675]Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus(London:Longman,1992),59—60.
[676]杰弗里·帕克(Geoffrey Parker)认为,古斯塔夫的管理基本上是为了勒索来自法国的大规模金融支持,因为担心瑞典的成功可能会阻止法国退出战后定居点:“没有法国的帮助,古斯塔夫仍可能会占据统治地位,从而可以重新绘制德国地图,而法国是不会冒着这样的风险的……法国特使……承诺向瑞典每年提供100万里弗,为期五年,为‘保卫波罗的海、商业自由,以及解放被神圣罗马帝国压迫的国家’而开战。这份合约立即被公布,并附上一份法国当场支付30万里弗的报告,引起了轰动。它被广泛称赞为瑞典外交的主线。”参见Parker, Europe in Crisis,219。
[677]Roberts,“Sweden and the Baltic,1611—1654,”392.
[678]Wilson, The Thirty Years War,462.
[679]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,63,56.
[680]Wilson, Profit and Power,107.
[681]J.R.Jones, The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century(New York:Routledge,1996),8.
[682]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,67.
[683]重要的是要记住,在史密斯对重商主义经济学进行解读之前两个权力还没有承认自由贸易导致互利的可能性。F.L.卡斯滕(F.L.Carsten)解释说:“荷兰人正在对英国海洋进行系统的统治,或者缺乏系统的想法,荷兰人称之为自由海洋原则,无论他们的商业力量是什么,他们都支持这种至高无上的原则。只有经过多年并开放新的可能性之后,它才开始意识到,世界贸易本身可以扩大,资本主义和竞争国家双方可以茁壮成长而不会相互摧毁。”参见E.H.Kossmann,“The Dutch Republic,”in The New Cambridge Modern History,2nd ed.,vol.5:The Ascendancy of France,1648—1688,ed.F.L.Carsten(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1961),283。
[684]Levy,“The Rise and Decline of the Anglo-Dutch Rivalry,”176,189.
[685]Edmundson, Anglo-Dutch Rivalry During the First Half of the Seven-teenth Century,5.
[686]Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System II:Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy,1600—1750(Berkeley:Uni-versity of California Press,2011),77—78.
[687]Wilson, Profit and Power,78.
[688]John A.Lynn, The Wars of Louis XIV,1667—1714(Harlow, UK:Longman,1999),17.
[689]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,99;Sir George Clark,“The Nine Years War,1688—1697,”in The New Cambridge Modern History,2nd ed.,vol.6:The Rise of Great Britain and Russia,1688—1715,ed.J.S.Bromley(New York:Cambridge University Press,1970),223.
[690]Derek McKay and H.M.Scott, The Rise of the Great Powers,1648—1815(London:Longman,1983),46.“光荣革命”不仅指威廉对詹姆斯的处置,而且还指一系列宪法改革,赋予议会更多权力。威廉一般很满意去批准这些,因为他的首要任务是利用英国资源与法国开战。
[691]Clark,“The Nine Years War,”230.
[692]Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire(New York:St.Martin's Press,1996),66.
[693]John Brewer, The Sinews of Power:War, Money and the English State,1688—1783(London:Unwin Hyman,1989),xvii.
[694]Robert Tombs and Isabelle Tombs, That Sweet Enemy:The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present(London:William Heinemann,2006),51.
[695]James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire,58.
[696]Tombs and Tombs, That Sweet Enemy,45.
[697]James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire,66.
[698]Tombs and Tombs, That Sweet Enemy,46.
[699]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,120.
[700]David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon(New York:Macmillan,1966),208.
[701]根据历史学家弗朗索瓦·高诺斯(Fran?ois Crouzet)的说法,18世纪后期的法国,经济发展与英国几乎无法相比。“这种决定性的英国人的智慧和创新意愿的优越性是加剧了两个经济体在18世纪下半叶之间结构性差异的基本事实。”参见Fran?ois Crouzet, Britain Ascendant:Comparative Issues in Franco-British Economic History(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1990),12。
[702]William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002),197.
[703]Ibid.,198,204—205.
[704]William Cobbet, ed.,Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England:From the Norman Conquest, in 1066,to the Year 1803,vol.30(London:T.C.Hansard,1806),239.
[705]Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution,200—202.
[706]到1815年,拿破仑将法国军队扩大到1789年的三倍多。参见Kenne-dy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,99。
[707]Charles Downer Hazen, The French Revolution and Napoleon(New York:Henry Holt,1917),251—252.
[708]Norman Longmate, Island Fortress:The Defense of Great Britain,1603—1945(London:Hutchinson,1991),291.
[709]Michael Leggiere, The Fall of Napoleon(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007),2.
[710]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,124.
[711]这种扩张速度在俄国历史上并不是前所未有的:俄国“从1552年到1917年,每年的扩张量比许多欧洲国家的整个领土(平均每年10万平方千米)都要大”。参见Kissinger, World Order,53。
[712]Correlates of War Project,“National Material Capabilities Dataset.”参见Singer, Bremer, and Stuckey,“Capability Distribution, Uncertainty, and Ma-jor Power War,”19—48。
[713]Orlando Figes, The Crimean War:A History(New York:Metropolitan Books,2010),40.
[714]Ibid.
[715]Simms, Europe,221.
[716]Figes, The Crimean War,48.
[717]Kissinger, World Order,50.
[718]Astolphe de Custine, Letters from Russia, ed.Anka Muhlstein(New York:New York Review of Books,2002),647.
[719]Alexander Polunov, Thomas Owen, and Larissa Zakharova, eds.,Rus-sia in the Nineteenth Century:Autocracy, Reform, and Social Change,1814—1914,trans.Marshall Shatz(New York:M.E.Sharpe,2005),69.
[720]Adam Lambert, The Crimean War:British Grand Strategy Against Rus-sia,1853—56(Manchester, UK:Manchester University Press,1990),27.
[721]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,120.
[722]Ibid.,149.
[723]Ibid.,183.
[724]Howard, The Franco-Prussian War,40.
[725]Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War,19.
[726]即波斯王。——译者注
[727]Howard, The Franco-Prussian War,22.
[728]Correlates of War Project,“National Material Capabilities Dataset.”参见Singer, Bremer, and Stuckey,“Capability Distribution, Uncertainty, and Ma-jor Power War,”19—48.
[729]Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War,19.
[730]Simms, Europe,241.
[731]Steinberg, Bismarck,281—282.
[732]Otto von Bismarck, Bismarck, the Man and the Statesman, Being the Reflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck, Written and Dicta-ted by Himself After His Retirement from Office, trans.A.J.Butler(New York:Harper&Brothers,1898),57.
[733]学界存在着一个争论:俾斯麦有多大机率会利用霍亨索伦的王位候选资格来与法国开战。然而学界普遍认为俾斯麦确实渴望战争,而无论是阴差阳错还是早有预谋,王位候选资格都是普鲁士谋求与法国对抗的核心所在。
[734]Jasper Ridley, Napoleon III and Eugenie(New York:Viking,1980),561.
[735]Howard, The Franco-Prussian War,40.
[736]Simms, Europe,243.
[737]Mitchell, International Historical Statistics,1025.
[738]参见日本军事开支图表,Schencking, Making Waves,47(1873—1889),104(1890—1905)。
[739]Iriye,“Japan's Drive to Great-Power Status,”in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol.5:The Nineteenth Century, ed.Marius Jansen(Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,1989),760—761.
[740]Duus, The Abacus and the Sword,49.
[741]Iriye,“Japan's Drive to Great-Power Status,”764.
[742]S.C.M.Paine, The Sino-Japanese War of 1894—1895:Perceptions, Power, and Primacy(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003),77.
[743]Stewart Lone, Japan's First Modern War:Army and Society in the Conflict with China,1894—95(London:St.Martin's Press,1994),25.
[744]原文即为“marching northwest into Chinese territory”,这里遵从原文,译作“向西北进军中国领土”。——译者注
[745]Westwood, Russia Against Japan,11.
[746]Schencking, Making Waves,104.
[747]Adam Tooze, The Deluge:The Great War, America, and the Rema-king of the Global Order,1916—1931(New York:Viking,2014),13.
[748]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,200—201.
[749]May, Imperial Democracy,57—59.
[750]Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,339.
[751]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,203.
[752]Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,351.
[753]1889年英国政府通过《海军防御法案》,正式确立海军“两强标准”。——译者注
[754]Friedberg, The Weary Titan,197.
[755]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace,38.
[756]Orde, The Eclipse of Great Britain,22.See also May and Hong,“A Power Transition and Its Effects,”12—13.
[757]在对“自由安全”的描述中,C.范恩·伍德沃德指出:“管辖和保卫大西洋的昂贵海军是由英国人控制并出资,而美国人则享受着额外的安全保障,却没有增加他们自己的防务成本。”Woodward,“The Age of Reinterpreta-tion,”2.
[758]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,202.
[759]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,464.
[760]Seligmann, N?gler, and Epkenhans, eds.,The Naval Route to the A-byss,137—138.
[761]MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace, xxvi.
[762]到1914年,法国总投资的四分之一都流向了快速工业化的俄国。Strachan, The First World War,19,62—63.
[763]Herwig, The First World War,20—24.
[764]这位德国皇帝担心,在最近的危机中,他会因没有直面自己的敌人而感到耻辱,而他看到了一个很好的机会来结束俄国在巴尔干半岛的影响力,即使这导致了与莫斯科的战争。Herwig, The First World War,21—24;MacMil-lan, The War That Ended Peace,523.
[765]举个例子,Clark, The Sleepwalkers, xxi-xxvii,561。
[766]Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism,470.
[767]Lebensraum是一个德语单词,意指生存空间。在1897年,德国地理学家拉采尔提出国家有机体学说,之后提出了生存空间的概念作为一个政治词语。其之后被纳粹和其他民族主义者所利用,认为一个民族应当尽可能地扩张自己的生存领域。
[768]Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919:Six Months That Changed the World(New York:Random House,2003),465.
[769]Richard J.Evans, The Third Reich in Power,1933—1939(New York:Penguin,2005),4.
[770]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,288.
[771]William Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich:A History of Nazi Germany(New York:Simon&Schuster,2011),58.
[772]Evans, The Third Reich in Power,705.
[773]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,305;Antony Be-evor, The Second World War(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson,2012),5.
[774]Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War:Power and the Roots of Conflict(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1999),95—96.
[775]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,324.
[776]Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark:European International Histo-ry,1933—1939(New York:Oxford University Press,2011),835.
[777]Beevor, The Second World War,4.
[778]Gerhard Weinberg, A World at Arms:A Global History of World War II(New York:Cambridge University Press,2005),22.
[779]Winston Churchill, Never Give In!:Winston Churchill's Speeches, ed.Winston S.Churchill(New York:Bloomsbury,2013),102—103.
[780]“Speech by the Prime Minister at Birmingham on March 17,1939,”Yale Law School Avalon Project, http://avalon. law.yale.edu/wwii/blbk09.asp.
[781]Kissinger, Diplomacy,294.
[782]参见Beevor, The Second World War,17—21。
[783]Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,334.
[784]US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States and Ja-pan,780.
[785]Richard Storry, Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia,1894—1943(London:Macmillan,1979),159.
[786]Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor,248.
[787]Maechling,“Pearl Harbor,”47.
[788]Snyder, Myths of Empire,126,5.
[789]Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation:My Years in the State Depart-ment(New York:Norton,1969),36.
[790]Gaddis, The Cold War,15.
[791]参见福莱斯特给霍莫尔·费格逊的信,Millis, ed.,The Forrestal Di-aries,57。
[792]Wilfried Loth,“The Cold War and the Social and Economic History of the Twentieth Century,”in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol.2,ed.Melvyn Leffler and Odd Arne Westad(New York:Cambridge University Press,2010),514.
[793]美国国务卿约翰·福斯特·杜勒斯开始担心,“如果我们不能在某种程度上复制共产党为提高生产力标准而进行的集中建设,那么在世界大部分地区遏制共产主义将是非常困难的”。参见H.W.Brands, The Devil We Knew:Americans and the Cold War(New York:Oxford University Press,1993),70。
[794]Samuelson, Economics,807.
[795]Correlates of War Project,“National Material Capabilities Dataset”;Singer, Bremer, and Stuckey,“Capability Distribution, Uncertainty, and Major Power War,”19—48.
[796]无论是来自“修正主义”学派的学者,还是认为受人尊敬的冷战斗士如乔治·凯南,都认为美国对苏联的威胁反应过度了,大量的历史证据支持这一观点。然而,修昔底德陷阱并不要求守成国对崛起国的看法是理性的,也不需要对方的威胁和自己的实力相称。它只是要求崛起国至少在某种程度上正在变强,而且它的崛起足以引发守成国的恐惧,本案例很好地满足了这两种情况。
[797]在两国进行秘密作战的罕见案例中,当苏联飞行员在朝鲜战争期间对韩国进行轰炸时,出于担心核升级可能带来毁灭性后果,他们不愿意承认这一点。
[798]参见Campbell Craig and Fredrik Logevall, America's Cold War(Cambridge, MA:Harvard Belknap,2009),357;Melvyn Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind(New York:Hill and Wang,2007),465;Gaddis, The Cold War,261。
[799]参见Gaddis, The Long Peace,225。
[800]Ibid.,232.
[801]参见Graham Allison,“Primitive Rules of Prudence:Foundations of Peaceful Competition,”in Windows of Opportunity:From Cold War to Peaceful Competition in US-Soviet Relations, ed.Graham Allison, William Ury, and Bruce Allyn(Cambridge, MA:Ballinger,1989)。
[802]即军事发展和经济发展。——译者注
[803]Jussi M.Hanhimaki,“Europe's Cold War,”in The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History, ed.Dan Stone(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2012),297.
[804]Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe,407.
[805]Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed,207.
[806]Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe,408.
[807]Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed,47.
[808]Heilbrunn,“The Interview:Henry Kissinger.”
[809]Stephen Green, Reluctant Meister(London:Haus Publishing,2014),299.
[810]Haftendorn, Coming of Age,319.
[811]正如马丁·德德曼指出:“将复兴中的德国经济安全稳定地融入西欧的目标,在没有达成任何正式和平协议的情况下失败了。对于一个曾经好战的国家,欧洲选择了通过经济一体化解决问题:1951年建立了煤钢共同体,1957年建立了欧洲经济共同体。这意味着,在第二次世界大战后的45年里,德国经济实力的恢复并没有对欧洲构成政治或军事威胁(而日本的经济超级大国地位已经引起了其亚洲邻国的警惕)。”参见Martin Dedman, The Origins and Development of the European Union,1945—2008(New York:Routledge,2009),2。
[812]Hans Kundnani, The Paradox of German Power(London:C.Hurst,2014),102—103,107.