对埃里克·克拉克生态音乐理论的评价
埃里克·克拉克的生态音乐理论是在生态感知理论基础上发展的理论,生态感知理论研究感知者和环境的相互关系,克拉克研究的是听者与一般听觉环境、更具体地说是音乐环境的互动关系,从而丰富了生态感知理论。与此同时,他也丰富了音乐感知理论。为了较为客观地评价克拉克,本节从贡献和局限两个方面来综合评价克拉克的生态音乐理论。
克拉克生态音乐理论的贡献主要表现在如下四个方面:
第一,克拉克反思了西方音乐理论的研究或欣赏方式。一方面,克拉克用生态学理论解决了一些问题,比如音乐学和音乐心理学理论之间随意相互借鉴理论观点的问题;理论借鉴所造成的形式属性和感知属性的混用问题;音乐感知的心理描述与美学和批判之间存在缝隙问题。另一方面,克拉克通过反思和批判音乐认知理论,为生态感知理论在音乐分析上的有效性奠定了基础。克拉克反思了音乐认知理论的感知顺序性。他引用了吉布森的感知理论,指出无论是属于“基本的感知属性”信息,还是属于“文化意义”的信息,都直接依赖于人们的感知系统。他认为对于音乐各方面的感知也都具有直接性。此外,克拉克还从其他方面证明了感知的直接性。他引用生态学方法的观点,指出物理信息、抽象信息等都直接在信息中指定,明确了信息作为感知的直接来源,证明了音乐感知的直接性。其次,克拉克通过对于认知理论的表征观点的反驳,再次证明感知的直接性。克拉克认为,环境中的信息是存在于环境中的,并且有结构,感知者可以进行直接感知。可以说,克拉克对于音乐直接感知的理论观点,打破了以往人们关于音乐欣赏的观念。
第二,克拉克运用了生态感知方法,丰富了生态感知理论。克拉克强调音乐材料与感知能力(敏感性)的关系,讨论听音乐作为对意义的持续觉知,并以此区别于音乐意义理论。克拉克在温莎生态音乐声学理论的基础上,发展了“不变量”的概念;在吉布森生态感知理论的基础上,发展了“敏感性”“共振”等概念。此外,克拉克在自己的生态感知音乐理论中突出强调了生态感知方法的三个因素,即“感知与行动的循环”“适应”“感知学习”,并突出了它们在音乐感知方面的应用。可以说,克拉克在形成自己生态音乐理论的同时,加强了生态感知方法在音乐方面的应用,丰富了生态感知理论。
第三,克拉克将可供性理论应用于音乐感知,有利于探索音乐的意义。克拉克将吉布森的“可供性”理论应用于音乐意义的探索,指出可供性与物体的属性有关,也与感知者的感知能力和需求有关,可供性还可以被理解为感知者遇到感知信息的行为后果。可以说,克拉克将可供性理论应用于音乐,有助于音乐意义的生态感知研究。
第四,克拉克对于音乐事件理论的应用。克拉克认为,感知是关于发现世界上的事件意义并对其采取行动,聆听音乐则是以感知的方式参与音乐事件和意义。克拉克指出,音乐事件可以指定有形的物体,也可以指定抽象的事物;音乐事件可以指定真实的世界,也可以指定虚拟的世界;音乐事件可以帮助听者聆听歌曲、歌剧等音乐作品,也可以帮助听者感知和理解西方传统的绝对音乐和自律性音乐。可以说,克拉克的音乐事件理论为解释听者的音乐感知提供了一个有效的途径。
笔者认为,接下来的内容与其说是对克拉克生态音乐理论局限的总结,不如说是学术界对于其理论的批判反思,下面主要选取诺肯和温莎的观点,进行相关总结:
玛丽莲·诺肯[110](Marilyn Nonken)对于克拉克生态音乐理论的思考。诺肯在2008年发表了一篇名为《音乐椅能提供什么?论克拉克的聆听方式与萨克斯的恋音乐》(“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia”)的文章。在文中,诺肯主要从两个方面进行了论述:1.诺肯质疑克拉克“认为聆听的过程是音乐刺激强加在听者身上的过程,听者的反应很大程度上是由外界力量决定的”[111] ;2.诺肯认为克拉克对于“可供性”和“环境”的定义过于宽泛,缺乏对于感知和概念的区分。首先,诺肯质疑克拉克的观点,即“积极”聆听是由外部力量引导的,并且感知也是由外部因素调节的,“‘在那里’获得的知识是‘在这里’有意义的音乐体验的先决条件”[112]。诺肯指出,克拉克得出这个观点的前提是,假定听觉和音乐感知相对来说是没有意义的,是“文化赋予了声音和环境这些本来毫无意义的体验以意义”[113]。此外,诺肯还质疑克拉克对于音乐环境范围的定义,质疑克拉克将绝对的艺术作品、听者的思想都包含进音乐环境。诺肯指出,这些观点作为生态原则的应用是不够具有说服力的。
其次,诺肯认为克拉克有将感知和概念等同起来的倾向。诺肯认为,“感知意义和概念意义是可以区分的,因为它们的意义边界可以被精确地指定”[114]。为此,诺肯引用了赫夫特(Heft)的观点:
可供性与概念共享的属性是,两者的实例都可以具有多个含义;但是,每个实例在显示该属性的方式上都有差异。在可供性的情况下,多个知觉意义产生于一个对象可以服务的多个功能……概念的多重意义远没有那么有限,因为使用并不限制它们的可能性。尽管概念可能最终来自于感知-行动经验……它们可以脱离日常现实而独立自主。正是这种特征赋予了概念巨大的创造力,就像在艺术中可以看到的那样。[115]
诺肯指出,“感知与概念在音乐体验中共存,感知与概念的过程直接影响着语境意义的辨析。然而,克拉克的感知和概念(解释)是不可分割的”[116]。除此之外,诺肯认为,克拉克对于生态原则的应用以及对于“环境”一词的使用都具有高度的隐喻性。“生态心理学关注的是生物体在生存环境中的意识和活动。这不是克拉克所描述的无定形景观(the amorphous landscape)。在这种音乐虚拟现实中,可供性的功能特性被模糊了。此外,它失去了最初的有用性。”[117]诺肯指出,克拉克所列举音乐可以提供舞蹈、唱歌、演奏等活动,并非是直接感知的描述,更像是一份听音乐时要做的事情清单,这与音乐无关。然后,诺肯根据吉布森的理论强调,“音乐环境是这个世界的一部分,它的感知同样直接”[118],克拉克没有理由认为“艺术存在于虚拟环境中”。
卢克·温莎[119](W.Luke Windsor)质疑来源规范对于更典型声乐或器乐体裁的作用,以及音乐事件在音乐中的指定。首先,温莎指出,虽然克拉克认为感知者对于“当下、身体、乐器‘源’的感知也可能被认为依赖于听觉不变量的拾取”[120],但是这不能够证明来源规范与更典型的声乐体裁或器乐体裁有显著的音乐相关性。比如,“认为弦乐四重奏表演中最令人关注的方面是我们听到的声音所指定的真实事件或对象,似乎有些奇怪”[121]。其次,温莎指出,对于“真实”或“虚拟”事件或者对象的感知不具有确定性。“在某些类型的音乐中,‘真实’或‘虚拟’事件或对象是由听觉信息指定的,这种特殊性与理解音乐话语高度相关,在许多音乐中,不太清楚具体的事件或对象是什么,甚至不清楚这种特定性是否与音乐上令人关注的属性相关。”[122]
最后,克拉克在自己的著作中,也曾提到自己所采用的方法“是一种妥协”,他指出“根本没有经验证据可作为讨论聆听的基础,而这种讨论将考虑到人们倾听的所有不同方式和他们所听到的不同现象”[123]。但是,克拉克指出,生态感知音乐理论提供了一种理解和探索多样性的方法,帮助感知者理解听音乐时的意义,使感知者意识到自己与音乐环境的互动性。可以说,克拉克的生态音乐理论促进了听者更好地感知和聆听音乐。
【注释】
[1]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005.
[2]Tan,Daphne.“Review of Eric Clarke,Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning,”Society for Music Theory 21(2015),1-6.
[3]Clarke,Eric F.https://www.music.ox.ac.uk/about/people/academic-staff/university-lecturers-and-collegefellows/7006-2/.2018年10月08 日访问。
[4]该术语又译为“知觉”。当侧重表明行为或过程时,该术语翻译为“感知”;当侧重表明结果时,则翻译为“知觉”。
[5]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.11.
[6]CMPCP,Creative practice in contemporary concert music.http://www.cmpcp.ac.uk/research/projects/creativepractice-in-contemporary-concert-music/.2019年3月18日访问。
[7]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review3(1989),1-13.
[8]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review3(1989),1-13.
[9]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review3(1989),1-13.
[10]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[11]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[12]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.3.
[13]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.5.
[14]Clarke,Eric F.Doffman,Mark,and Lim,Liza.“Distributed Creativity and Ecological Dynamics:a Case Study of Liza Lim’s ‘Tongue of the Invisible’,”Music & Letters 94(2013),628-663.
[15]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Musical Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society 13(2018),264-281.
[16]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.21.
[17]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.30.
[18]程相占:《论生态美学的美学观与研究对象》,《天津社会科学》2015年第1期。
[19]Clarke,Eric F.“Subject-position and the Specification of Invariants in Music by Frank Zappa and P.J.Harvey,”Music Analysis18(1999),347-374.
[20]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.190.
[21]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[22]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[23]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[24]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[25]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[26]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[27]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[28]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[29]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[30]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[31]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[32]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[33]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[34]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.15.
[35]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[36]Clarke,Eric F.“Mind the Gap:Formal Structures and Psychological Processes in Music,”Contemporary Music Review 3(1989),1-13.
[37]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.12.
[38]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[39]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.5.
[40]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.34.
[41]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.34.
[42]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.35.
[43]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.35.
[44]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.35.
[45]Dowling,W.Jay,and Harwood,Dane L.Music Cognition.New York:Academic Press,1986,pp.160-161.
[46]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[47]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[48]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[49]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[50]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.26.
[51]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.26.
[52]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.26-27.
[53]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.28.
[54]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.28.
[55]Gibson,James J.The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems.London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd,1983,p.26.
[56]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.31.
[57]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.31.
[58]Gibson,James J.The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems.London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd,1983,p.26.
[59]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.17.
[60]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.18.
[61]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.19.
[62]Clarke,Eric F.“Perception and Critique:Ecological Acoustics,Critical Theory and Music,”Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,Thessaloniki,Greece(1997),19-22.
[63]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.18.
[64]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.18.
[65]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.18.
[66]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.21.
[67]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.21.
[68]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.19.
[69]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.124.
[70]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.136-137.
[71]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.137.
[72]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.137.
[73]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.137.
[74]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.137.
[75]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.138.
[76]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.20.
[77]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.21-22.
[78]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.29.
[79]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.29-30.
[80]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.29.
[81]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.30.
[82]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.30.
[83]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.22.
[84]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.22.
[85]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.22.
[86]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.23.
[87]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.23.
[88]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.23-24.
[89]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.24.
[90]Gibson,James J.The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems.London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd,1983,p.285.
[91]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.37.
[92]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.203-204.
[93]Gibson,James J.The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception(Classic Edition).New York:Psychology Press,2015,p.119.
[94]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.37.
[95]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.38.
[96]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.38.
[97]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.18.
[98]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.204.
[99]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.7.
[100]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.32.
[101]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Music Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society 13(2018),264-281.
[102]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.71.
[103]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Music Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society 13(2018),264-281.
[104]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Music Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society13(2018),264-281.
[105]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Music Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society13(2018),264-281.
[106]Clarke,Eric F.Williams,Alan E.,and Reynolds,Dee.“Music Events and Perceptual Ecologists,”The Senses and Society13(2018),264-281.
[107]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.133.
[108]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.134.
[109]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.179-180.
[110]玛丽莲·诺肯单位是纽约大学斯坦哈特文化、教育和人类发展学院(Steinhardt School of Culture,Education and Human Development,New York University).
[111]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[112]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[113]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[114]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[115]Heft,Harry.Ecological Psychology in Context.New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc.,2001,p.131.
[116]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[117]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[118]Nonken,Marilyn.“What do Musical Chairs Afford? on Clarke’s Ways of Listening and Sacks’s Musicophilia,”Ecological Psychology 20(2008),283-295.
[119]卢克·温莎单位是英国利兹大学音乐学院(School of Music,University of Leeds,UK)
[120]Windsor,Luke,Christophe de Bézenac.“Music and Affordances,”Musicae Scientiae 16(2012),102-120.
[121]Windsor,Luke,Christophe de Bézenac.“Music and Affordances,”Musicae Scientiae 16(2012),102-120.
[122]Windsor,Luke,Christophe de Bézenac.“Music and Affordances,”Musicae Scientiae 16(2012),102-120.
[123]Clarke,Eric F.Ways of Listening:An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning.New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.193.