Text A Early Chinese History
导 读
中国是世界文明古国，中华文明亦称华夏文明，是世界上最古老的文明之一，也是世界上持续时间最长的文明之一。中华文明源远流长，其直接源头有两个，即黄河文明、长江文明。中华文明是这两种区域文明交流、融合、升华的果实。中国历史自黄帝时代算起则约有5 000年。有历史学者认为，在人类文明史中，“历史时代”的定义是指从有文字时起算，在那之前则称为“史前时代”：历史中传说伏羲做八卦，黄帝时代仓颉造文字；近代考古发现了3 350多年前（公元前1350年）商朝的甲骨文、约4 000年前至5 000年前的陶文、约5 000年前至7 000年前具有文字性质的龟骨契刻符号。
From Yuanmou Man to Beijing Man
The first primitive man known to have existed in China is Yuanmou Man who lived about 1.7 million years ago.In 1965 two fossil front teeth of primitive ape-men were discovered in Yuanmou County,Yunnan Province.In 1963 and 1964 fossils known as the “Lantian Man” were discovered in Lantian County,Shaanxi Province.These were the earliest known inhabitants in China.About 500,000 years ago,Beijing Man,the ape-man who lived in Zhoukoudian area (in the southwestern suburb of present-day Beijing),already possessed the basic characteristics of Homo sapiens: he walked erectly on two legs,was able to make and use simple tools,and knew how to make fire and maintain it.
Yangshao Culture and Longshan Culture
The Yangshao Culture,which flourished some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago,was a matriarchal commune.The Longshan Culture,which existed some 5,000 years ago,is an example of a patriarchal commune.People were already able to make stone tools for many purposes and had invented pottery.In addition to hunting and fishing,agriculture and animal husbandry reached a new level of development.The improvement in craftsmanship was marked by the introduction of the potter’s wheel and the beginning of the metallurgy of copper.Towards the end of this period,society began to be divided into classes.
In the latter period of the primitive clan society,there were many tribes scattered in the Yellow River valley,among which the tribe headed by Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor) was the most powerful and had a fairly high level of civilization.Later,the Yellow Emperor became identified in Chinese mythology as the forefather of the Chinese nation.
The Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty is traditionally supposed to have begun with the reign of Yu the Great and ended with the fall of Jie,from approximately the 21st century B.C.to the 16th century B.C.
Yu devoted his whole life to flood control.His celebrated contributions won him the respect of the people who honored him as “Yu the Great” and “God of the Soil”.Thanks to the taming of floods by Yu,people could settle down.As a result,animal husbandry and agriculture underwent development,which required more knowledge of astronomy and a better calendar to mark seasonal changes.
Yao,a tribal chief,is said to have worked out a calendar dividing a year into four seasons to coincide with the seasons of farming.The calendar,known as the Xia calendar,was much praised by the people of later generations.Bronze vessels also came into use in the Xia Dynasty.
The Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty is the first dynasty recorded in written documents and evidenced by archaeological finds.
The Shang rulers frequently waged wars on neighboring clans,being superior to them in their possession of bronze weapons and chariots with spiked wheels.
Defeated soldiers were taken captive and became slaves or were used for sacrifices to the dead.
Farming was the basis of the state.Not only weapons,but also ritual vessels were cast from bronze.Belief in gods of nature and ancestral worship played a special role in the lives of the populace.Scribes and priests versed in astronomy performed sacrificial rituals.In Anyang,the Shang’s capital,graves of kings were discovered which contained,in addition to instruments,many beheaded slaves.They were supposed to be of service to the deceased in a later life.Besides this,tens of thousands of oracle bones engraved with characters and oracle questions were found.They were kept by the Shang archives as important historical documents.
The Zhou Dynasty
Around the year 1,100 B.C.,the Zhou clans conquered the Shang.People in this time gave up cave-dwelling,built houses and city walls,and began to live in cities,which were administered by officials.The concept of the emperor as the “Son of the Heaven” originated at the time that the highest god was the Heaven; the king,as the “Son of the Heaven”,was the mediator between the Heaven,the Earth and the people.
During the Western Zhou,agricultural production expanded and even breweries were set up.There appeared many poems and documents of high artistic value ranging in subject matter from philosophy to politics and history.The Book of Songs of this period is the earliest anthology of poetry in China.The Western Zhou was the heyday of the Bronze Age in China.Inscriptions on Zhou bronzes frequently end with the words “for eternal preservation by our descendants”.This is clearly an example of hope for the handing down of the inscribed bronzes from generation to generation.Beginning from 841 B.C.the Zhou royal house began to keep annals.Thus the year 841 B.C.marked the beginning of conscious systematic records in Chinese history.
The Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (The Eastern Zhou Dynasty)
The Western Zhou ended in 770 B.C.and the Eastern Zhou began when the rulers moved their capital to Luoyi (present-day Luoyang in Henan Province).The Eastern Zhou is generally divided into two periods—the Spring and Autumn Period (770 B.C.—476 B.C.) and the Warring States Period (476 B.C.—221 B.C.).
The Western Zhou formerly included over 1,700 semi-independent states.Their lords swore allegiance to the “Son of the Heaven” and gave military aid when required.However,as the power of the Zhou royal family declined,the number of feudal lords increased.Big states swallowed up little ones,and by 700 B.C.only 200 independent states existed.Continuing annexations during the Spring and Autumn Period reduced the number to a handful.
This period and the following important Warring States Period were a time of turmoil with incessant wars,unbridled power and great extremes of wealth and poverty.Out of the numerous small semi-states,7 larger kingdoms arose in the 4th century B.C.By 221 B.C.,the First Qin Emperor (259 B.C.—210 B.C.),Qin Shihuang,had annexed the 6 rival states and established Qin,the first feudal empire in Chinese history,from which China derives its name.
Persistent social upheavals gradually broke up the monopoly of culture and literature by the noble.Many schools of thought came into existence and began to contend against one another.It was during this time that some of the greatest philosophers in Chinese history lived: Confucius,Mencius,Mo Zi,Lao Zi,Zhuang Zi,Shang Yang and Han Fei Zi.The great poet Qu Yuan,author of Li Sao,was also active.They traveled from one state to another trying to offer their counsel to any ruler who would listen to them.
During this period,iron began to be used on a large scale in the manufacture of agricultural tools and weapons.The new implements brought about a true agricultural revolution.Iron tools greatly facilitated further irrigation and flood control.The marked increase in agricultural production gave rise to a population growth.
The economic upsurge also resulted in the growth of trade which brought the merchants,a new class of people,into much greater prominence.
Notes
1.The Yangshao culture（仰韶文化）：a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the central Yellow River in China.The Yangshao culture dated from around 5，000 B.C.to 3，000 B.C..The culture is named after Yangshao，the first excavated representative village of this culture，which was discovered in 1921 in Henan Province by the Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson （1874—1960）.The culture flourished mainly in the provinces of Henan，Shaanxi and Shanxi.
2.The Longshan culture（龙山文化）：a late Neolithic culture in China，centered on the central and lower Yellow River and dated from about 3，000 B.C.to 2，000 B.C.The Longshan culture is named after the town of Longshan in the east of the area under the administration of the city of Jinan，Shandong Province，where the first archaeological find （in 1928） and excavation （in 1930 and 1931） of this culture took place at the Chengziya Archaeological Site.
3.The Bronze Age（铜器时代）：a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons.Chronologically，it stands between the Stone Age and the Iron Age.The term Stone Age implies the inability to smelt any ore，the term Bronze Age implies the inability to smelt iron ore and the term Iron Age implies the ability to manufacture artifacts in any of the three types of hard materials.Their arrangement in the archaeological chronology reflects the difficulty of manufacture in the history of technology.
4.Confucius（孔子）：a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period.The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality，correctness of social relationships，justice and sincerity.These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines，such as Legalism （法家） or Taoism （道家） during the Han Dynasty.Confucius’ thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism （儒家）.
5.Mencius（孟子）：an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage，and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism.Supposedly，he was a pupil of Confucius’ grandson，Zisi.Like Confucius，according to legend，he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform.During the Warring States Period，Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi.He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother’s death.Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world，he retired from public life.
6.Mo Zi（墨子）：a Chinese philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period （early Warring States Period）.Born in Tengzhou，Shandong Province，China，he founded the school of Mohism and argued strongly against Confucianism and Taoism.During the Warring States Period，Mohism was actively developed and practiced in many states，but fell out of favour when the legalist Qin Dynasty came to power.During that period many Mohist classics were ruined when Qin Shihuang carried out the policies of burning books and burying scholars.The importance of Mohism further declined when Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han Dynasty，until mostly disappearing by the middle of the Western Han Dynasty.
7.Lao Zi（老子）：a mystic philosopher of ancient China，best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching.Lao Zi is traditionally considered the founder of Taoism due to his authorship of the Tao Te Ching.He is also revered as a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions，and often referred to as Taishang Laojun，or “One of the Three Pure Ones”.Translated literally，Lao Zi in Chinese means “old master” or “old one”，which connotes respect.
8.Zhuang Zi（庄子）：an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century B.C.during the Warring States Period，a period corresponding to the summit of Chinese philosophy，the Hundred Schools of Thought.He is credited with writing—in part or in whole—a work known by his name，the Zhuang Zi.
9.Shang Yang（商鞅）：an important statesman of the State of Qin during the Warring States Period of Chinese history.Born Wei Yang in the State of Wei，with the support of Duke Xiao of Qin，Yang enacted numerous reforms in Qin.These were in accordance with his legalist philosophy as recorded in The Book of Lord Shang and assisted Qin in its change from a peripheral state to that of a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom.He changed the administration of the state through an emphasis on meritocracy and devolving power from the nobility.
10.Han Fei Zi（韩非子）：a Chinese philosopher who，along with Li Si，Gongsun Yang，Shen Dao and Shen Buhai，developed the doctrine of the School of Law or Legalism.Unlike the other famed philosophers of the time，Han Fei Zi was a member of the ruling aristocracy，having been born into the ruling family of the state of Han during the end phase of the Warring States Period.In this context，his works have been interpreted by some scholars as being directed to his cousin，the King of Han.
11.Qu Yuan（屈原）：a Chinese poet who lived during the Warring States Period of ancient China.He is famous for his contributions to the poetry collection known as the Chu Ci （also known as Songs of the South or Songs of Chu）.Along with the The Book of Songs，the Chu Ci is one of the two great collections of ancient Chinese verse.Historical details about Qu Yuan’s life are few，and his authorship of many Chu-ci poems have been questioned at length.However，he is widely accepted to have written Li Sao，the most well-known of the Chu-ci poems，and possibly several others in the collection as well.
Words & Expressions
1.fossil['fɔsəl] n.化石；僵化的事物；顽固不化的人
2.possess[pə'zes] vt.控制；使掌握；持有；迷住
3.Homo sapiens[，həuməu'sæpienz，-'seipienz] n.人类；智人（现代人类的学名）
4.flourish['flʌriʃ] vi.繁荣；兴旺；茂盛；活跃；处于旺盛时期
5.matriarchal[，meitri'aːkl] adj.母系氏族的
6.commune[kə'mjuːn，'kɔmjuːn] n.公社
7.patriarchal[，peitri'ɑːkəl] adj.家长的；族长的；由族长统治的
8.pottery['pɔtəri] n.陶器；陶器厂；陶器制造术
9.husbandry['hʌzbəndri] n.饲养；务农；耕种；家政
10.metallurgy[mə'tælədʒi] n.冶金学
11.mythology[mi'θɔlɔdʒi] n.神话；神话学；神话集
12.reign[rein] n.统治；统治时期；支配
13.astronomy[ə'strɔnəmi] n.天文学
14.calendar['kælində] n.日历；［天］历法；日程表
15.tribal['traibəl] adj.部落的；种族的
16.coincide[，kəuin'said] vi.一致；符合；同时发生
17.vessel['vesəl] n.容器；器皿
18.excavation[，ekskə'veiʃən] n.挖掘；发掘
19.chariot['tʃæriət] n.二轮战车
20.spiked[spaikt] adj.尖的
21.captive['kæptiv] adj.被俘虏的；被迷住的
n.俘虏；迷恋者
22.sacrifice['sækrifais] n.牺牲；祭品；供奉
23.ritual['ritjuəl，-tʃu-] adj.仪式的；例行的；礼节性的
24.ancestral[æn'sestrəl] adj.祖先的；祖传的
25.populace['pɔpjuləs] n.大众；平民；人口
26.verse[vəːs] n.诗；诗篇；韵文；诗节
27.oracle['ɔrəkl，'ɔː-] n.神谕；预言；神谕处；圣人
28.engrave[in'ɡreiv] vt.雕刻；铭记
29.foremost['fɔːməust] adj.最重要的；最先的
30.mandate['mændeit] n.授权；命令；指令；委托管理；受命进行的工作
vt.授权；托管
31.virtuous['vəːtʃuəs] adj.善良的；有道德的；贞洁的；正直的；有效力的
32.mediator['miːdieitə] n.调停者；传递者；中介物
33.consultation[，kɔnsəl'teiʃən] n.咨询；磋商
34.brewery['bruəri] n.酿造所
35.artistic[ɑː'tistik] adj.艺术的；风雅的；有美感的
36.anthology[æn'θɔlədʒi] n.（诗、文、曲、画等的）选集
37.heyday['heidei] n.全盛期
38.inscription[in'skripʃən] n.题词；铭文；刻印
39.descendant[di'sendənt] n.后裔；子孙
40.allegiance[ə'liːdʒəns] n.效忠；忠诚；忠贞
41.feudal['fjuːdl] adj.封建制度的；领地的；世仇的
42.swallow up 吞没；吞并
43.annexation[，ænek'seiʃən] n.合并；附加物
44.handful['hændful] n.少数；一把；棘手事
45.turmoil['təːmɔil] n.混乱；骚动
46.incessant[in'sesənt] adj.不断的；不停的；连续的
47.unbridled[，ʌn'braidld] adj.放肆的；无拘束的；激烈的
48.annex[ə'neks，'æneks] vt.附加；获得；并吞
49.upheaval[ʌp'hiːvəl] n.剧变；隆起；举起
50.monopoly[mə'nɔpəli] n.垄断；垄断者；专卖权
51.contend[kən'tend] vi.竞争；奋斗；斗争；争论
52.implement['implimənt，'impliment] n.工具；器具
53.facilitate[fə'siliteit] vt.促进；帮助；使容易
54.irrigation[，iri'ɡeiʃən] n.灌溉
55.upsurge['ʌpsəːdʒ，ʌp'səːdʒ] n.涌起；高涨
56.prominence['prɔminəns] n.突出；显著；突出物；卓越
Exercises
I.Answer the following questions.
1.What is the basic characteristic of Homo sapiens?
2.When did society begin to be divided into classes?
3.How did the people honor Yu?
4.When did Bronze vessels come into use?
5.What is the first dynasty in written documents?
II.Decide whether each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F) according to the passage.
1.The Longshan Culture existed some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago.
2.During the Xia Dynasty,hunting,fishing,agriculture and animal husbandry reached a new level of development.
3.The Xia Dynasty is believed to have begun with the reign of Yu the Great and ended with the fall of Jie.
4.Around the year 110 B.C.,the Zhou Clans controlled the Shang.
5.The concept of the emperor as the “Son of the Heaven” originated in the Zhou Dynasty.
6.The Book of Songs of the period of the Eastern Zhou is the earliest anthology of poetry in China.
7.The Western Zhou was the start of the Bronze Age in China.
8.The Eastern Zhou is generally divided into two periods—the Sping and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.
III.Try to fill in each of the following blanks with a suitable word.
In the Middle and Lower Yellow River Valley is (1)______Culture.Here agriculture was practiced.Pottery was made with geometric patterns and baked at 1,000～1,500 degrees Celsius.The first evidence of a Neolithic culture in China was discovered in 1921 at Yangshao,in Henan Province.In 1953,during (2)______of a factory at Banpo,near the city of Xi’an in Shaanxi Province,a Neolithic village belonging to the Yangshao Culture was accidentally uncovered.This village covered an area of two and a half acres.Careful (3)______recovered an area of two and a half acres.Careful excavation revealed the (4)______of 45 houses,200 storage pits,needles,tools,arrowheads,fish hooks and six kilns.There were also 174 adult graves,76 children’s graves and 37 (5)______urns.The Neolithic people of Banpo hunted,fished,cultivated millet,cooked their food and raised pigs as domestic animals.