参考文献[1]

参考文献 ^[1]

第1章

The human diaspora from Africa is somewhat murky because we have only fragmentary evidence for many specimens.For example，for Homo antecessor，one of the first post-Homo erectus species to leave Africa，we have incomplete fossils from only six individuals.Some authors suggest that Homo antecessor was in the direct lineage of both Homo sapiens and Homo Neanderthalensis（e.g.，Jose-Maria Bermúdez de Castro et al.，“A Hominid from the Lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca，Spain：Possible Ancestor to Neanderthals and Modem Humans，”Science 276，no.5317［1997］：1392-95），but others propose that Homo antecessor represents a dead-end branch（e.g.，Richard Klein，“Chapter 3：Hominin Dispersals in the Old World，”in The Human Past：World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies，second edition，edited by Chris Scarre，［London：Thames &Hudson，2009］，84-123）.Most archaeologists agree that Homo heidelbergensis was an ancestor of both modem humans in Africa as well as Neanderthals in Eurasia（Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Francesco Cavalli-Sforza，The Great Human Diasporas，translated by Sarah Thorne［New York：Perseus Books，1996］）.For the casual reader，the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History includes a good summary on its website（www.humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/）.

The Toba supervolcano eruption seventy-five thousand years ago is well substantiated（e.g.，Stanley Ambrose，“Late Pleistocene Human Population Bottlenecks，Volcanic Winter，and Differentiation of Modern Humans，”Journal of Human Evolution 34，no.6［1998］：623-51），but the suggestion that it created a human population bottleneck is disputed（e.g.，Christine Lane et al.，“Ash from the Toba Supereruption in Lake Malawi Shows No Volcanic Winter in East Africa at 75 ka，”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110，no.20［2013］：8025-29）.

The emergence of modem humans in Africa is well documented（Chris-topher S.Henshilwood et al.，“A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave，South Africa，”Science 334，no.6053［2011］：219-22），as is the fact that humans share significant portions of their DNA with Neanderthals（Kay Prüfer et al.，“A High-Coverage Neandertal Genome from Vindija Cave in Croatia，”Science 358，no.6363［2017］：655-58）.Discoveries of rock-and-mammoth-bone settlements at Dolni Vestonice are summarized in Gene Stuart，“Ice Age Hunters：Artists in Hidden Cages，”Mysteries of the Ancient World（Washington，DC：National Geographic Society，1979）.

第2章

Jared Diamond's Guns，Germs，and Steel（New York：W.W.Norton，1997）touches on the development of Aboriginal fishing communities.A summary of archeological evidence can be found on the Australian Department of the Environment and Energy's website（www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/nationalbudj-bim/）.

Thickness of the continental ice sheets is described in Richard Foster Flint's Glacial and Quaternary Geology（New York：John Wiley，1971）.A history of Inuit arrival from Asia and dispersal in North America can be found in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas：Volume 1，edited by Bruce G.Trigger and Wilcomb E.Washburn（Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，1996）.Competition between the Inuit and Vikings is vividly described by Jared Diamond in Collapse：How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed（New York：Viking，2006）.

Estimates of the population of the Americas before European arrival range drastically—from less than ten million to more than a hundred million.Charles C.Mann convincingly argues that it was on the higher end of this range in 1491：New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus（New York：Knopf，2005）.The fact that syphilis was present in the Americas before European contact is documented in Bruce Rothschild et al.，“First European Exposure to Syphilis：The Dominican Republic at the Time of Columbian Contact，”Clinical Infectious Diseases 31，no.4（2000）：936-41.

第3章

DNA evidence and timelines for the peopling of Polynesia are recounted in Pontus Skoglund et al.，“Genomic Insights into the Peopling of the Southwest Pacific，”Nature 538（2016）：510-13.

A fascinating account of Polynesian navigational methods，and on Tupaia's ability to recount details about islands that he'd never visited，can be found in Joan Druett's The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator（New Jersey：Old Salt Press，1987）.For good summaries of Polynesian navigation，also see Jared Diamond's Collapse：How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed（New York：Viking，2006）and Geoffrey Irwin's The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonization of the Pacific（Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，1992）.

The linguistic connection between Polynesian islands and the encounter between Tupaia and the Maori are described in Michael King's The Penguin History of New Zealand（Auckland：Penguin Books，2003）.

Evidence of Polynesian southward ventures toward Antarctica is documented in Atholl Anderson and Gerard O'Regan，“To the Final Shore：Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia，”Australian Archaeologist：Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen，editedby Atholl Anderson and Tim Murray（Canberra：Coombs Academic Publishing，Australian National University，2000），440-54，and on the Australian Antarctic Division website（www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/stations/macquarie-island）.

第4章

Archeological evidence for stone tools on Crete dating back 130,000 years is summarized in Andrew Lawler，“Neandertals，Stone Age People May Have Voyaged the Mediterranean，”Science，online edition，http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aat9795（2018）.

DNA evidence for mummified baboons brought back from Punt to Egypt was presented in a podium session by Nathaniel J.Dominy et al.at the 84th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists，titled“Mummified Baboons Clarify Ancient Red Sea Trade Routes，”an abstract of which can be found in the AAPA Presentation Schedule，American Journal of Physical Anthropology 156（2015）：122-23.The description of The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor is based on Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's excellent lecture series History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 1：The Earliest Explorers，”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.The case for Egyptian forays into the African interior is convincingly argued by Paul Herrmann in The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）.Evidence for the Egyptian-okapi connection can be found in Captain C.H.Stigand，“The Lost Forests of Africa，”Geographical Journal 45（London：The Royal Geographical Society，1915），513-20.

The voyages of Hanno the Navigator are based on a translated account with commentary by Jona Lendering，“Hanno the Navigator，”Livius，https://www.livius.org/articles/person/hanno-1-the-navigator/（last modi-fied April 21，2019）.

The description of the Great Library of Alexandria and the scientific contributions of Eratosthenes were inspired by Carl Sagan's masterpiece televised series（Cosmos：A Personal Voyage，episode 1，“The Shores of the Cosmic Ocean，”aired September 28，1980，on PBS）and accompanying book（Cosmos［New York：Random House，2002］）.

第5章

The assertion that the Persian Empire contained almost half the people in the world is based on Rein Taagepera，“Size and Duration of Empires：Growth-Decline Curves，600 B.C.to 600 A.D.，”Social Science History 3，no.3/4（1979）：115-38.The account of the emergence of Athens and the splendor of Greek culture were partly inspired by Eric Weiner's The Geography of Genius：Lessons from the World's Most Creative Places（New York：Simon & Schuster，2016），along with Carl Sagan's Cosmos New York：Random House，2002）.Susan Wise Bauer's The History of the Ancient World：From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome（New York：W.W.Norton，2007）was an indispensable reference for details.Also see Herodotus，translated by A.D.Godley，The Persian Wars，Volume 1：Books 1-2，book 117 in the Loeb Classical Library series（Cambridge，MA：Harvard University Press，1920）.

For further reading on the travels of Alexander the Great，see Philip Freeman's wonderful account Alexander the Great（New York：Simon & Schuster，2011）.Details of Pytheas's travels is based on Barry Cunliffe's The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek：The Man Who Discovered Britain，revised edition（New York：Walker，2002）；a good summary and the tidbit about Britons asserting the Irish were cannibals are included in Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 2：The Scientific Voyage of Pytheas the Greek”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.

The account of the Roman Empire was inspired by Mary Beard's excellent book SPQR：A History of Ancient Rome（New York：Liveright，2015）.The description of Roman naval technological development，in particular the reverseengineering of a Carthaginian vessel，is described in J.F.Lazenby's The First Punic War：A Military History（Stanford，CA：Stanford University Press，1996）.Roman trade with India and a comparison of the Roman pepper trade with Venetian and Portuguese imports are documented in G.V.Scammell's The World Encompassed：The First European Maritime Empires c.800-1650（Berkeley and Los Angeles：University of California Press，1981）.

The theory that Roman soldiers made their way to China following the Battle of Carrhae was suggested by H.H.Dubs，“A Roman City in Ancient China，”Greece and Rome 4，no.2（1957）：139-48.The idea is fascinating（and somewhat plausible），yet any theory based on a convoluted chain of events so long ago should be approached with a great deal of skepticism.For more discussion，see Erling Hoh，“Lost Legion，”Far Eastern Economic Review（January 14，1999）：60-62.

第6章

For a vivid and surprisingly modern-sounding account of the people and technology of pre-Roman Northern Europe，see Julius Caesar's The Gallic Wars，translated by W.A.McDevitte and W.S.Bohn，hosted on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's classics website（http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.html）；the naval battle with the Veneti is described in book 3，chapter 13.

Roman military forays into Ireland and the Irish role in preserving clas-sical works are described in Vittorio Di Martino's Roman Ireland（Doughcloyne，Ireland：The Collins Press，2006）and Thomas Cahill's How the Irish Saved Civilization：The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe（New York：Doubleday，1995），respectively.

The account of Irish monks and the voyages of St.Brendan are based on T.C.Lethbridge's Herdsmen and Hermits：Celtic Seafarers in the Northern Seas（Cambridge：Bowes & Bowes，1950）and Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 3：St.Brendan：The Travels of an Irish Monk”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.The assertion that Columbus sailed to the Americas with a map that showed an“Island of St.Brendan”is from The Classical Tradition and the Americas，edited by Wolfgang Haase and Reinhold Meyer（Berlin：Walter de Gruyter，1993）.

Description of Viking society and the origin of the word“berserk”were inspired by Liulevicius's“Lecture 5：Leif Eriksson the Lucky.”Viking consumption of sauerkraut，onions，and radishes as a defense against scurvy is recounted in Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）.Evidence for Viking use of a polarized mineral to focus light on cloudy days is reviewed by Albert Le Floch et al.，“The Sixteenth Century Alderney Crystal：A Calcite as an Efficient Reference Optical Compass？，”Proceedings of the Royal Society A：Mathematical，Physical and Engineering Sciences 469，no.2153（2013），https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2012.0651.

Descriptions of Viking lifestyle and expansion owes much to Jared Diamond's Collapse：How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed（New York：Viking，2006）.Details of forays into North America draw on“The Saga of Erik the Red，”translated by J.Sephton in 1880，Icelandic Saga Database，sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en（accessed April 24，2019）.Evidence for butternut found in Newfoundland is presented in Birgitta Wallace，“The Norse in Newfoundland：L'Anse aux Meadows and Vinland，”special issue，New Early Modern Newfoundland：Part 219，no.1（2003）.The eleventh-century Norwegian penny is discussed in Patricia Sutherland，“The Norse and Native Norse Americans，”Vikings：The North Atlantic Saga，edited by William F.Fitzhugh and Elizabeth Ward（Washington，DC：Smithsonian Books，2000）.Radiocarbon dating of Greenland Viking artifacts to as late as 1450 is asserted in Jette Arneborg et al.，“Change of Diet of the Greenland Vikings Deter-mined from Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis and14C Dating of Their Bones，”Radiocarbon 41，no.2（1999）：157-68.

第7章

The case for early contacts owes much to the arguments presented in Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）；however，significant new evidence has surfaced since that book was originally published，strengthening some of the book's arguments while weakening others.In particular，evidence for contact between Polynesia and North America based on the sweet potato seems to be accumulating，based on a number of sources，including Brian Switek，“DNA Shows How the Sweet Potato Crossed the Sea，”Nature News（2013），http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.12257；Caroline Roullier et al.，“Historical Collections Reveal Patterns of Diffusion of Sweet Potato in Oceania Obscured by Modern Plant Movements and Recombination，”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110，no.6（2013）：2205-10；and Alvaro Montenegro et al.，“Modeling the Prehistoric Arrival of the Sweet Potato in Polynesia，”Journal of Archaeological Science 35，no.2（2008）：355-67.

Evidence for pre-Columbian contact based on coconut dispersal has also been recently strengthened by Luc Baudouin et al.，“The Presence of Coco-nut in Southern Panama in Pre-Columbian Times：Clearing Up the Confu-sion，”Annals of Botany 113，no.1（2014）：1-5，and John L.Sorenson and Carl L.Johannessen，“Scientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages，”Sino-Platonic Papers 133（2004）.

The observations by Adelbert von Chamisso on South American naval technology are recounted in Isabel Ollivier's review of A Voyage Around theWorld with the Romazov Exploring Expedition in the Years 1815-1818 in the Brig Rurik in Journal of the Polynesian Society 98，no.1（1989）：97-99.Discussion on pre-Columbian South American voyages and raft design draw on Jeff Emanuel，“Crown Jewel of the Fleet：Design，Construction，and Use of the Seagoing Balsas of the Pre-Columbian Andean Coast，”Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on Boats and Ship Archaeology（October 2012）and Thor Heyerdahl and Arne Skjölsvold，“Archaeological Evidence of Pre-Spanish Visits to the Galapagos Islands，”Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 12（1956）.

For more on canoe and tool design similarities，see Jose-Miguel Ramirez-Aliaga，“The Polynesian-Mapuche Connection：Soft and Hard Evidence and New Ideas，”Rapa Nui Journal 24，no.1（2010）：29-33，and Terry L.Jones and Kathryn A.Klar，“Diffusionism Reconsidered：Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California，”American Antiquity 70，no.3（2005）：457-84.Linguistic ties are outlined in Willem F.H.Adelaar with Pieter C.Muysken，“Genetic Relations of South American Indian Languages，”Languages of the Andes，41（Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，2004），and Simon Greenhill et al.，“Entries for KUMALA.1［LO］Sweet Potato（Ipomoea），”POLLEX-Online：The Polynesian Lexicon Project Online（2010）.The case for contact based on chicken DNA is described in Vicki A.Thompson et al.，“Using Ancient DNA to Study the Origins and Dispersal of Ancestral Poly-nesian Chickens Across the Pacific，”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111，no.13（2014）：4826-31.

The modem interpretation on the“white god”myth（originally recounted by Herrmann）was partly inspired by Camilla Townsend，“Burying the White Gods：New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico，”American Historical Review 108，no.3（2003）：659-87.

第8章

The Portuguese forays into the Indian Ocean，along with King Manuel I's quip“It is not we who have discovered them，but they who have dis-covered us，”is discussed in Anthony Pagden's Peoples and Empires：A Short History of European Migration，Exploration，and Conquest，from Greece to the Present（New York：Modem Library，2001）.

Details on the Majapahit Empire and Arabs sailors of the Indian Ocean are outlined in Bertold Spuler's The Muslim World：A Historical Survey（Brill Archive，1981），and the embassy of Odoric of Pordenone is discussed in Georges Maspero's The Champa Kingdom：The History of an Extinct Vietnamese Culture，translated by E.J.Tips（Banglamung，Thailand：White Lotus Press，2002）.

The account of the travels of Ibn Battuta are based on Ross E.Dunn's The Adventures of Ibn Battuta：A Msulim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century（Berkeley and Los Angeles：University of California Press，2005）and the excellent summary by Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius in History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 7：Ibn Battuta：Never the Same Route Twice”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.

Vasco da Gama's journals from his voyage to India（A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama，1497-1499，translated by E.G.Ravenstein［New Delhi：Asian Educational Services，1995］），are a fascinating read and include tidbits such as the fact that he brought along Jewish interpreters who tried to speak Arabic to sailors along the Swahili coast.

An analysis of the spice trade，including the relative competitiveness of Venice and Portugal and how salt and pepper came to stock our dinner tables appears in the excellent lecture series on culinary history by Ken Albala，Food：A Cultural Culinary History（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2013）.The reference to Alaric the Goth demanding peppercorns is from Black Pepper：Piper nigrum，edited by P.N.Ravindram（Boca Raton，FL：CRC Press，2000）.

The discussion of Ottoman naval power and its challenge to Portuguese dominance of the Indian Ocean draws upon Giancarlo Casale's The Ottoman Age of Exploration（New York：Oxford University Press，2010）.

第9章

The role China played in the development of naval technology is described by Joseph Needham in Science and Civilization in China，volume 4，Physics and Physical Technology（Taipei：Caves Books，1986），as well as by David Graff and Robin Higham in A Military History of China（Boulder，CO：Westview Press，2002）.

Description of the Mongol conquests and the role they played in diffusing technologies is based on the wonderful account by Jack Weatherford in Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World（New York：Crown，2004）.Recommended reading on the topic also includes S.Frederick Starr's Lost Enlightenment：Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，2013），though the scope of this work is far broader.

The summary of Marco Polo's journey is based on Henry Hersch Hart's Marco Polo，Venetian Adventurer（Norman：University of Oklahoma Press，1967），and also on Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 6：Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）；he characterized Marco Polo as“the first modem secular humanist.”

The contrast between China and Europe，and the fact that in 1400，Europe accounted for a mere 10 percent of the world's land surface and 15 percent of its population is based on Niall Ferguson's Civilization：The West and the Rest（New York：Penguin Books，2012）.Evidence for beer in ancient China is presented in Jiajing Wang et al.，“Revealing a 5,000-Y-Old Beer Recipe in China，”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113，no.23（2016）：6444-48.

Recommended readings on the voyages of Zheng He and the Chinese treasure fleets include Edward L.Dreyer's Zheng He：China and the Oceans in the Early Ming，1405-1433（Old Tappan，NJ：Pearson Longman，2006）and Louise Levathes's When China Ruled the Seas：The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne，1405-1433（New York：Oxford University Press，1996）.

第10章

The discussion on Portugal's founding and naming is based on Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）.Details on Henry the Navigator and the overseas expansion of Portugal draw on Bailey W.Diffie and George D.Winius's Foundations of the Portuguese Empire，1415-1580（Minneapolis：University of Minnesota Press，1977）.The assertion that at least thirty shipwrecks occurred between 1790 and 1806 near Cape Bogador is found in Dean H.King's Skeletons on the Zahara：A True Story of Survival（New York：Little，Brown，2004）.

The account of Vasco da Gama's voyage to India is based on his journals（A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama，1497-1499，translated by E.G.Ravenstein［New Delhi：Asian Educational Services，1995］），Herrmann's Great Age of Discovery，and the excellent summary by Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius in History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 8：Portugal's Great Leap Forward”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.

Also recommended is John Jones's 1863 translation of The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of Bologna from 1502 to 1508（New Delhi：Asian Educational Services，1997），which gives a fascinating account of a European adventurer in Asia.

第11章

The summary of Columbus's life and travels draw on Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）and Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration“Lecture 9：The Enigmatic Christopher Columbus”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.

The discussion on the humanist efforts of Bartolomé de Las Casas and his contrast with Columbus was inspired by David M.Traboulay's Columbus and Las Casas：The Conquest and Christianization of America，1492-1566（Lanham，MD：University Press of America，1994）.

Discussions on the state of Native American societies before European arrival and the conquests of the conquistadors draw from Jared Diamond's Guns，Germs，and Steel（New York：W.W.Norton，1997）and Charles C.Mann's 1491：New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus（New York：Knopf，2005）.In 1491，Mann convincingly argues for popula-tion estimates on the high side for Native American societies（up to sixty million in Mexico）and suggests that twenty thousand people were sacrificed by the Aztecs every year.His 1493：Uncovering the New World Columbus Created（New York：Knopf，2011）is a fabulous investigation into the impacts of Columbus's voyages；this book supplied general intellectual fodder for“Plunder and Gold”and influenced other chapters，too.

第12章

The roles played by Amerigo Vespucci and Martin Waldseemüller in the naming of America are discussed in John Wilford's The Mapmakers：The Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography—from Antiquity to the Space Age，revised edition，（New York：Knopf，2000）.

The summary of Magellan's voyage in this chapter draws mainly on Laurence Bergreen's gripping book Over the Edge of the World：Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe（New York：William Morrow，2003）.A few details（e.g.，the fact that many of Magellan's crew were scoured from prison）are from Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）.Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 10：Magellan and the Advent of Globalization”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）was also consulted.

For further reading on Spanish Manila and the Acapulco galleon route，see J.H.Parry's The Spanish Seaborne Empire（New York：Knopf，1967）and Charles C.Mann's 1493：Uncovering the New World Columbus Created（New York：Knopf，2011）.

第13章

The discussion in this chapter on the rise of Europe owes much to Niall Ferguson's Civilization：The West and the Rest（New York：Penguin Books，2012）.The connection between the rise of Europe and exploration is examined（though mostly indirectly）in Anthony Pagden's The Enlightenment：And Why It Still Matters（New York：Random House，2013）.Angus Maddison's Growth and Interaction in the World Economy：The Roots of Modernity（Washington，DC：AEI Press，2001）was also consulted for its description of the rise of European economic prosperity.Details on literacy rates and the influence of the printing press can be found in Robert Houston's Literacy in Early Modern Europe：Culture and Education，1500-1800，second edition（Chicago：Addison-Wesley Longman，1989）and Elizabeth L.Eisenstein's The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe，Canto Classics，second edition（Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，2012）.

For further reading on the rise of the Netherlands and its global fleet，see Jonathan Israel's The Dutch Republic：Its Rise，Greatness and Fall，1477-1806（New York：Oxford University Press，1995）.The assertion that more than sixteen thousand Dutch ships plied the world's oceans by 1650 is made in Steven Mintz and Sara McNeil's“The Middle Colonies：New York，”Digital History（http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm？smtID=2&psid=3586）.

The discussion of the influence of Dutch New Amsterdam is based on Russell Shorto's excellent book The Island at the Center of the World：The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony That Shaped America（New York：Vintage，2005）.Description of the contrast between the geographic expanse and economic prosperity of the French and English colonies was inspired by Niall Ferguson's The Ascent of Money：A Financial History of the World（New York：Penguin Books，2008）.

For further reading on free maroon societies in the Americas，a good starting point is Charles C.Mann's excellent account in 1493：Uncovering the New World Columbus Created（New York：Knopf，2011）.

第14章

For further reading on Henry Hudson's voyage，see Doug Hunter's God's Mercies：Rivalry，Betrayal，and the Dream of Discovery（Toronto：Doubleday Canada，2007）.For more on Alexander Mackenzie's tracing of his eponymous river into the Arctic，see Barry Gough's First Across the Continent：Sir Alexander Mackenzie（Norman：University of Oklahoma Press，1997）.

The description of the Lewis and Clark expedition in this chapter draws heavily on Stephen E.Ambrose's masterpiece account of the Corps of Discovery，Undaunted Courage：Meriwether Lewis，Thomas Jefferson，and the Opening of the American West（New York：Simon & Schuster，1997）.Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 16：Jefferson Dispatches Lewis and Clark”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）was also consulted，contributing the tidbit about mammoths being considered as the US national animal in place of the bald eagle.

The summary of Russian expansion，and in particular the incredible voyage of Vitus Bering，was inspired by a reading of Orcutt Frost's Bering：The Russian Discovery ofAmerica（New Haven，CT：Yale University Press，2003）.

第15章

For further reading on John Harrison's method of computing longitude，see Dava Sobel's wonderful book Longitude：The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time（London：Walker，1995）.Brian Richardson's Longitude and Empire：How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World（Vancouver：University of British Columbia Press，2005）expands on how the discovery of a method of computing longitude enabled Cook's voyages.

The descriptions of Captain Cook's voyages draw on Peter Aughton's Endeavour：The Story of Captain Cook's First GreatEpic Voyage（Glouchestershire，UK：Windrush Press，1999），Philip Edwards's James Cook：The Journals（London：Penguin Books，2003），and Paul Herrmann's The Great Age of Discovery，translated by Arnold J.Pomerans（New York：Harper，1958；reprinted by Whitefish，MT：Kessinger，2007）.

The account of Alexander von Humboldt's travels was inspired by Andrea Wulf's The Invention of Nature：Alexander von Humboldt's New World（New York：Knopf，2015）.Humboldt's characterization of himself as a“universal citizen of humanity”is from Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 15：Alexander von Humboldt：Explorer Genius”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015），although this was a common self-description at the time，as discussed in Anthony Pagden's The Enlightenment：And Why It Still Matters（New York：Random House，2013）.The brief summary of Ida Pfeiffer's travels is based on Liulevicius's“Lecture 18：Ida Pfeiffer：Victorian Extreme Traveler.”

第16章

The description of Sir John Franklin's expedition in this chapter owes much to Owen Beattie and John Geiger's excellent book Frozen in Time：The Fate of the Franklin Expedition（London：Bloomsbury，1987）and to a lesser extent Gillian Hutchinson's Sir John Franklin's Erebus and Terror Expedition：Lost and Found（London：Bloomsbury，2017）.The quote“I beg your pardon？I'm only fifty-nine，”comes from Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius's summary in History's Greatest Voyages of Exploration，“Lecture 17：Sir John Franklin's Epic Disaster”（Chantilly，VA：The Great Courses，2015）.

For a gripping description of the arctic voyage of Fram，Fridtjof Nansen's personal account Farthest North：The Incredible Three-Year Voyage to the Frozen Latitudes of the North，which was originally published in 1897，is a great source（abridged edition；New York：Modem Library，1999）.

For further reading on Nobile's arctic airship expedition and the resulting crash and then rescue，see Wilbur Cross，Disaster at the Pole：The Tragedy of the Airship Italia and the 1928 Nobile Expedition to the North Pole（Lanham，MD：Lyons Press，2000）.

The description of the race for the South Pole in this chapter draws on Stephen R.Brown's The Last Viking：The Life of Roald Amundsen（Boston：Da Capo，2012）and Roland Huntford's Scott and Amundsen：The Last Place on Earth（New York：Abacus，2012）.But perhaps no book on Antarctic exploration is so compelling as Alfred Lansing's epic recital of Shackleton's struggle for survival in Endurance：Shackleton's Incredible Voyage，second edition（New York：Carroll& Graf，1999）.

第17章

The summary of Amelia Earhart's life and aviation career in this chapter is based on Susan Butler's East to the Dawn：The Life ofAmelia Earhart（Philadelphia：Da Capo，2009）and Donald M.Goldstein and Katherine V.Dillon's Amelia：The Centennial Biography of an Aviation Pioneer（London：Brassey's，1997）.

Details on the search for Earhart and Noonan are mainly drawn from Randall Brink's Lost Star：The Search for Amelia Earhart（New York：W.W.Norton，1994）.

The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery has compiled evidence for various competing theories of what may have happened to Earhart and Electra A summary of hypotheses and supporting evidence can be found at“The Post-Loss Radio Signals，”TIGHAR.org（https://tighar.org/Projects/Earhart/Overview/AEhypothesis.html）.

第18章

This chapter's musings on how in engineering“know-how”often precedes“know-why，”and also the trajectory of the Soviet and US Moon programs were greatly inspired by Professor David Mindell's course Engineering Apollo：The Moon Project as a Complex System，Massachusetts Institute of Technology，https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sci-ence-technology-and-society/sts-471j-engineering-apollo-themoon-project-as-a-complex-system-spring-2007/（attended in 2006）.

Other references consulted include Michael J.Neufeld's Von Braun：Dreamer of Space，Engineer of War（New York：Vintage Books，2008），Annie Jacobsen's Operation Paperclip：The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America（New York：Little，Brown，2014），and Andrew Chaikin's A Man on the Moon：The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts（New York：Penguin Books，2007）.

第19章

For further reading on the robotic exploration of the solar system，see Chris Impey and Holly Henry's excellent book Dreams of Other Worlds：The Amazing Story of Unmanned Space Exploration（Princeton，NJ：Princeton University Press，2013）.Another good general reference on the topic is Worlds Beyond：The Thrill of Planetary Exploration as told by Leading Experts，edited by S.Alan Stem（Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，2003）.

Alan Stem and David Grinspoon's Chasing New Horizons：Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto（New York：Picador，2018）provides a fascinating account on how robotic space exploration missions are organized，designed，and carried out（in particular the title mission to Pluto）.I would also be remiss if I didn't mention Carl Sagan's Pale Blue Dot：A Vision of the Human Future in Space（New York：Random House，1994），which convincingly argues why space exploration is well worth the cost，and also discusses planning for Voyagers 1 and 2“grand tour”of the solar system.

For further reading on the Viking experiments，see Paul Chambers's Life on Mars：The Complete Story（London：Blandford，1999）；G.V.Levin and P.A.Straat，“Viking Labeled Release Biology Experiment：Interim Results，”Science 194，no.4271（1976）：1322-29；and Rafael Navarro-González et al.，“Reanalysis of the Viking Results Suggests Perchlorate and Organics at Midlatitudes on Mars，”Journal of Geophysical Research，115，E12（2010），https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JE003599.

第20章

Much of the discussion on artificial intelligence in this chapter was inspired by the fantastic documentary film Do You Trust This Computer？，directed by Chris Paine，http://doyoutrustthiscomputer.org/（Papercut Films，2018）.Ray Kurzweil's The Singularity Is Near：When Humans Transcend Biology（New York：Penguin Books，2006）was also consulted.

Additional musings on artificial intelligence and the human future draw from Michio Kaku's The Future of Humanity：Terraforming Mars，Interstellar Travel，Immortality，and Our Destiny Beyond Earth（New York：Doubleday，2018），Peter Diamandis's Abundance：The Future Is Better Than You Think（New York：Free Press，2012），and Carl Sagan's masterpiece works Pale Blue Dot：A Vision of the Human Future in Space（New York：Random House，1994）and Cosmos（New York：Random House，2002）.

第21章

Musings on NASA's trajectory early in this chapter were greatly inspired by Aircraft Systems Engineering（with a focus on the Space Shuttle），a course taught by Professor Jeffrey Hoffman and Aaron Cohen（former director of NASA's Johnson Space Center），Massachusetts Institute of Technology，https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astro-nautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/（attended in 2005）.

The estimate of just over a billion dollars per Saturn V flight is referenced in Roger E.Bilstein's Stages to Saturn：A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles（Washington，DC：NASA History Office，1997）.The cost estimate of$450 million for a shuttle flight comes from Pat Duggins's Final Countdown：NASA and the End of the Space Shuttle Program（Gainesville：University Press of Florida，2009）.

The discussion of Mars as the best destination for humanity is heavily inspired by Robert Zubrin，who originally kindled my interest in the Red Planet with his fantastic book The Case for Mars：The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must（New York：Free Press，1996）.Also consulted were Zubrin's How to Live on Mars：A Trusty Guidebook for Surviving and Thriving on the Red Planet（New York：Three Rivers Press，2008）and Mars Direct：Space Exploration，the Red Planet，and the Human Future（New York：Jeremy P.Tarcher/Penguin，2013）.

第22章

Robert Zubrin's The Case for Mars：The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must（New York：Free Press，1996）and Peter Diamandis's Abundance：The Future Is Better Than You Think（New York：Free Press，2012）inspired some of the projections in this chapter，in particular regarding energy production and resource extraction.Zubrin also presents some ideas for traveling beyond Mars in his chapter“Colonizing the Outer Solar System，”in Islands in the Sky：Bold New Ideas for Colonizing Space，edited by Stanley Schmidt and Robert Zubrin（New York：John Wiley，1996），85-94.

Some specific thoughts on what a spacefaring future would be like（in particular，details related to establishing a human presence on Titan）owe their genesis to a reading of Charles Wohlfort and Amanda R.Hendrix's Beyond Earth：Our Path to a New Home in the Planets（New York：Pantheon，2016）.The idea of human settlement of Mercury as described in this chapter was proposed in Arthur C.Clarke's masterpiece Rendezvous with Rama（Orlando，FL：Harcourt Brace，1973）—an example of science fiction inspiring science？

Chris Impey's Beyond：Our Future in Space（New York：W.W.Norton，2016）was also consulted for this chapter，and the section on space food production was no doubt inspired in some way by Mary Roach's hilarious book Packing for Mars：The Curious Science of Life in the Void（New York：W.W.Norton，2011）.

第23章

Several authors were influential in the writing of this chapter.Chris Impey's Beyond：Our Future in Space（New York：W.W.Norton，2016）gives a summary of certain forms of advanced propulsion systems，in particular the Alcubierre drive（originally proposed in Miguel Alcubierre，“The Warp Drive：Hyper-Fast Travel within General Relativity，”Classical and Quantum Gravity 11，no.5［1994］，https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001）.Good overviews are also provided in I.A.Crawford，“The Astronomical，Astrobiological，and Planetary Science Case for Interstellar Spaceflight，”Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 62（2009）：415-21；Crawford，“Some Thoughts on the Implications of Faster-Than-Light Interstellar Space Travel，”Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36，no.3（1995）：205-18；and Geoffrey Landis，“The Ultimate Exploration：A Review of Propulsion Concepts for Interstellar Flight，”Interstellar Travel and Multi-Generation Space Ships，edited by Yoji Kondo et al.（Burlington，Canada：Apogee Books，2003）.

The concept of using nuclear bombs to power spacecraft was，to my knowledge，first proposed in C.J.Everett and S.M.Ulam，“On a Method of Propulsion of Projectiles by Means of External Nuclear Explosions，”Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory（August 1955），reprinted in S.M.Ulam，Analogies Between Analogies：The Mathematical Reports of S.M.Ulam and His Los Alamos Collaborators（Berkeley and Los Angeles：University of California Press，1999），http://ark.cdlib.org/ark：/13030/ft9g50091s/.

For further reading on laser-powered space travel，see Geoffrey Landis，“Laser-Powered Interstellar Probe，”presented at the Conference on Practical Robotic Interstellar Flight，New York University，New York，August 29 through September 1，1994.For the feasibility of generation ships，see Adam Crowl et al.，“Embryo Space Colonisation to Overcome the Interstellar Time Distance Bottleneck，”Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 65（2012）：283-85.

Michio Kaku's The Future of Humanity：Terraforming Mars，Interstellar Travel，Immortality，and Our Destiny Beyond Earth（New York：Doubleday，2018）and Robert Zubrin's Entering Space：Creating a Spacefaring Civilization（New York：Penguin Putnam，1999）were also consulted for this chapter.

第24章

For a thorough review of what we know about the prospect for life on other worlds，see The Handbook of Astrobiology，edited by Vera M.Kolb（Boca Raton，FL：CRC Press，2019）.Chris McKay does a good job reviewing what we know about the necessary conditions for life in“Requirements and Limits for Life in the Context of Exoplanets，”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 no.35（2014）：12628-33.

For background reading on panspermia，see Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe's Evolution from Space：A Theory of Cosmic Creationism（New York：Simon & Schuster，1982）and Chandra Wickramasinghe，“Bacterial Morphologies Supporting Cometary Panspermia：A Reappraisal，”International Journal of Astrobiology 10，no.1（2011）：25-30.For more on the possibility of RNA bridging the gap until the advent of DNA，see Marc Neveu et al.，“The‘Strong’RNA World Hypothesis：Fifty Years Old，”Astrobiology 13，no.4（2013）：391-403.

Discussion on extremophiles，evolution，and the Burgess Shale in this chapter was inspired by Bill Bryson's A Short History of Nearly Everything（New York：Broadway Books，2003），Michael Land and Russell Fernald's“The Evolution of Eyes，”Annual Review of Neuroscience 15（1992）：1-29，and，of course，Richard Dawkins's fantastic books The Greatest Show on Earth：Evidence for Evolution（New York：Free Press，2009）and The Blind Watchmaker：Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design（New York：W.W.Norton，1996）.

第25章

For further reading on the Kardashev scale，see Nikolai S.Kardashev，“On the Inevitability and the Possible Structures of Supercivilizations，”The Search for Extraterrestrial Life：Recent Developments，Proceedings of the 112th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union Held at Boston University，Boston，Mass.，USA，June 18-21，1984，edited by M.D.Papagiannis（Dordrecht，Netherlands：D.Reidel，1984），497-501.

The assertion that almost a quarter of Americans can't tell the difference between astrology and astronomy is from Elizabeth Palermo，“1 in 5 Americans Confuse Astrology and Astronomy，”LiveScience（www.livesci-ence.com/52135-american-science-knowledge-poll.html）；it was 22 percent in the poll.

General intellectual fodder for this chapter was provided by Ray Kurzweil's The Singularity Is Near：When Humans Transcend Biology（New York：Penguin Books，2006），Michio Kaku's The Future of Humanity：Terraforming Mars，Interstellar Travel，Immortality，and Our Destiny Beyond Earth（New York：Doubleday，2018），and Michael Shermer's Heavens on Earth：The Scientific Search for the Afterlife，Immortality，and Utopia（New York：Henry Holt，2018）.

【注释】

[1]本书涉及的范围十分广泛，作者参照了大量的文献资料，为保证准确性，方便读者检索，拓展知识深度，本部分内容原版呈现。——编者注