Labor Relations
The federal government became increasingly involved in sport afterWorld War Ⅰ，with the United States Supreme Court ruling in 1922 that baseball was exempt from antitrust laws.Baltimore，one of the defunct teams in the Federal League，a third major circuit that lasted from 1913 to 1915，had sued Major League Baseball in an antitrust suit，but the court reasoned that baseballwas not a business and thus could not be held to the same commercial statutes that affected other businesses engaged in interstate commerce.This exemption allowed baseball team owners to operate with impunity in regard to labor relations formost of the 20th century.
9-9 Rozelle Rule
Despite the glorification of athletic heroes and immense profits to be had in the sporting world，employers and employees did not share equally in the rewards，and professional athletes and team owners continued to quarrel over salaries，pensions，and rights to free agency.In 1970，the NFL players launched a strike，and Oscar Robertson led NBA team members in a lawsuit against their employers.Although Curt Flood proved unsuccessful in his baseball case，the NBA playerswon greater freedom from their previously binding contracts，and，in 1972，Baltimore Colts player John Mackey，presidentof the football players' union，successfully sued the NFL and negated the famed“Rozelle Rule9，”which allowed commissioner Pete Rozelle to set the compensation if any player left his assigned team for another.Since the commissioner inevitably sided with team owners，the rule effectively denied players the chance to test their value on an openmarket.Despite the favorable ruling，NFL team owners showed little interest in free agents，and the average player's salary reached only$69，000 by 1980.
Baseball players had greater success in their pursuit of free agency.Under the guidance of Marvin Miller，executive director of the players'union，pitchers Dave McNally of the Montreal Expos and Andy Messersmith of the Los Angeles Dodgers implemented a different strategy.Having completed the terms of their contracts，they played the 1974 season without signing an agreementwith the team owner.Without a contract，they argued that they were free agents，able to negotiate with any club for their services.An arbitration panel and federal appeals courts agreed，essentially breaking the reserve rule that for nearly a century had bound players to one team.Players'salaries nearly tripled over the next five years，as owners outbid each other to stock their teamswith the best players.
9-10 Salary Cap Conflict
In professional basketball，the bidding wars between the NBA and the rival ABA also resulted in higher salaries for players.When the owners of the two leagues attempted a merger in 1970，the players blocked it with a lawsuit.The ABA ceased operations in 1976，when its Indiana Pacers，Denver Nuggets，San Antonio Spurs，and New York Nets franchises joined the NBA.Lucrative television contracts provided$880，000 to each NBA team in 1980.The collective bargaining agreement of2005 was due to expire in 2011；butby 2010 the two sideswere arguing over the issue of salary caps and the players'share of the NBA income，which rose to 57 percent.The owners wanted a bigger share.The negotiations broke down once again，resulting in another lockout by the owners.This time the players pursued opportunities to take their skills elsewhere，and some went to the European teams or China.A federalmediator finally intervened to break the deadlock，and a 10-year agreement was reached；but after 161 days of arbitration，the reclaimed season amounted to only a 66-game schedule.
In 1981，Major League Baseball players went on strike in midseason over free agency issues.They returned，50 days later，only after owners agreed to recognize the players'rights to negotiate their contracts and salaries.In return，the owners got compensation for departing free agents through draft choices，cash，or the trading of other players.In 1994，fanswere outraged when playerswent on strike again，forcing cancellation of theWorld Series for the first time in 90 years.
The NFL also faced a lockout in 2011 butmanaged to save the season when owners and players finally reached agreement.Veteran players received bigger salaries，while rookies lost bigger contracts.All playerswon a reduction in the number and duration of practices.The owners also won an increase in their income，but they did notget the additional2 games theywanted to extend the season schedule to 18 contests.In the wildly profitable NFL，the fans found little sympathy for either group asmillionaires argued with billionaires over their ever-increasing incomes.
9-11 Owners and Players Reached Agreement
The NHL expanded to 30 teams，24 of them located in the United States.The Canadian winter sport migrated southward to such unlikely places as Georgia，Florida，Texas，California，and Arizona，but support proved only lukewarm in some locations.In the 1999—2000 season，the NHL initiated a four-on-four overtime format to boost fan interest，but owners locked out the players in a labor dispute before the startof the 2004—2005 campaign，relegating the NHL to the status of baseball a decade earlier.When the players'union and the owners could not agree on a salary cap10，they forfeited the entire 2004—2005 season.Hockey，like baseball，tried to recapture fans by generating more offense.In 2005，the league placed greater restrictions on goalies and initiated shootouts to settle overtime deadlocks.In the 2015—2016 season，the NHL adopted a three-on-three overtime format.
Notes：
1 White Stockings
White Stockings or“ChicagoWhite Stockings”was an original name of two professional baseball clubs in Chicago，Illinois，mainly the two Major League Baseball clubs in both the older National League（1876）and later American League（1901）that operate today：Chicago Cubs.
2 National Association of Base Ball Players
The National Association of Base Ball Players was the first organization governing American baseball.The first convention of sixteen New York City area clubs in 1857 practically terminated the Knickerbocker era，when that club privately deliberated on the rules of the game.The succeeding National Association of Professional Base Ball Players is considered the first professional sports league.
3 National Association of Professional Base Ball Players
The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players（also known simply as the National Association or NA）was the first professional league，and played from 1871 through 1875.The NA is considered to be the first professional baseball league，and was one of the first professional team sports leagues of any kind.
4 NFL
The National Football League（NFL）is the pinnacle of the sport in the US and the world.It consists of 32 teams split into two conferences—the American Football Conference（AFC）and the National Football Conference（NFC）.Within each conference there are four divisions（North，South，East and West）with four teams in each.
5 MLB
Major League Baseball（MLB）is a professional baseball organization and the oldestof themajor professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada.A total of30 teams play in the National League（NL）and American League（AL），with 15 teams in each league.
6 wild card
A wild card is a tournamentor playoff berth awarded to an individual or team that fails to qualify in the normalway，for example by having a high ranking or winning a qualifying stage.In some events，wild cards are chosen freely by the organizers.
7 Rose Bowl
The Rose Bowl Game is an annual American college football bowl game，usually played on January 1 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena，California.When New Year's Day falls on a Sunday，the game is played on Monday，January 2.The Rose Bowl Game is nicknamed“The Granddaddy of Them All”because it is the oldest currently operating bowl game.
8 Harlem Globetrotters
The Harlem Globetrotters are an exhibition basketball team.They combine athleticism，theater，and comedy in their style of play.Over the years，they have played more than 26，000 exhibition games in 124 countries and territories.The team's signature song is Brother Bones'whistled version of“Sweet Georgia Brown”.
9 Rozelle Rule
The Rozelle rule is named after Pete Rozelle，the NFL.commissioner，because he puts it into effect.It requires a team signing a player who had made himself a free agent to compensate that player's former team bymeans of players and/or draft selections.
10 salary cap
A salary cap，which is also known as a wage cap，is a rule that is written out in a contract or otherwise legally stated that places a limit on how much an employee can earn.Thismeans that the cap iswell-known in the industry and professionals can earn salaries up until that number but not earn more than the number.
Practice for the unit
A.Blank filling
1.Skinner developed two special departments in the American Farmer：______________.And he regularly included__________for farm men and women.
2.At first，sports team owners feared radio as_____________，but commercial stations bought rights to game broadcasts by____________.
3._________________________________was scheduled to be the first live event to be broadcast across the entire country.
4.It is not the primary aim of themedia to__________，but_____________________in order to______________________________.
5.Via______________________，and_________________________TV sport coverage increases_____________________，and________________of the audiences.
6.______________erupted in 1889，as labor relations in professional baseball reflected__________________throughout the United States.
7.Professional sport follows the logic of business：_____，but_________________，at least for the owners.
8.Unlike European soccer，which is based on________，where winning at all costs is the aim，American sport is based on____________where winning is only a tool for generating revenues.
9.In 1949，the BAA and the NBLmerged to form the________________which had produced a________________，but by 1954 only eight franchises remained.
10.Despite the___________of athletic heroes and immense profits to be had in the sporting world，employers and employees did not share equally in the__________，and professional athletes and team owners continued to quarrel over____，________，and_____________________________.
B.Short-answer questions
1.Please explain factors that affected the nature of American sport since 1960 and how television transformed sport.
2.With the aim of raising the number of consumers，what strategies have the sport organizers and themedia taken？
3.What did the phenomenal success of ESPN lead to？
C.Critical thinking
1.What impacts does themedia exert on sport？
2.What are forms of income for sport teams or leagues？And in your view，why does sponsorship play a huge role in American sport？