Women’s Professional Teams and Endorsements
More than 260 women were competing on the LPGA tour by 2002.They included an international coterie of entrants from Europe and Asia，as well as the United States.Although women's sports organizations expanded and viewers became more accepting of women on the golf tour，the top female players earned only a fraction of the men's purses，and female golfers deemed pretty，“domestic，”or fashionable garnered a greater share of the limited endorsementmoney than those considered less feminine.Some female tennis stars have attracted more media coverage for their appearance than for their play on the court.Anna Kournikova reached star status based on her glamorous appeal，although she had never won amajor tournament，whereas Venus and SerenaWilliams combined top-level talent with beauty in their rise to the top echelon，and their combination of power and sexuality heightened interest in women's tennis.By 2002，the number of professional female tennis players had more than tripled from 1977，and the best players earned prizemoney equivalent to thatof some of theirmale counterparts.Despite the recriminations of some feminists，sex became a primary attraction on the women's tennis circuit.
10-18 Female Boxers
Female boxers challenged the traditional gender roles and social boundaries；but other athletes continued to promote their bodies rather than their skills as a means to greater acceptance.Three years after her Olympic victory，Claressa Shields still had no endorsements.Conversely，swimmer Jenny Thompson，winner of seven Olympic gold medals（from 1992 to 2004），posed wearing only shorts for Sports Illustrated16 magazine in 2000，and the U.S.Olympic women's swimming team shunned its suits altogether as they draped an American flag around their naked bodies for a publicity shot.Eros thus became amore overt factor in sportsmarketing despite the concerns of bothmoralists and feminists.
10-19 Brandi Chastain
The women's national soccer team has experienced similar woes.After hosting and winning the 1999 World Cup in a dramatic double overtime，the women's team created“soccer fever”among American fans.The frenzy，however，proved short-lived.Brandi Chastain，the heroine in the victory，got greater attention for her postgame celebration in which she ripped her jersey off after scoring thewinning goal and later for posing nude in Gear17 magazine and in ESPN The Magazine's body issue.Multiple attempts tomaintain a women's professional soccer league have ended in failure，despite the success of the women's team greatly exceeding that of the nationalmen's team.By 2016，the women had garnered four Olympic championships and threeWorld Cup titles yet were paid only about25%of what themale players earned.
Notes：
1 Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War（1775—1783），also known as the American War of Independence，was fought primarily between the Kingdom of Great Britain and her Thirteen Colonies in America；it resulted in the overthrow of British rule in the colonies and the establishment of the United States of America.
2 the cult of domesticity
The Culture of Domesticity（often shortened to Cult of Domesticity）or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th Century in the United States and the United Kingdom.This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity，the woman's role within the home and the dynamics of work and family.“Truewomen”，according to this idea，were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues：piety，purity，domesticity，and submissiveness.The idea revolved around the woman being the center of the family；she was considered“the light of the home”.
3 Hartford Female Sem inary
Hartford Female Seminary in Hartford，Connecticut was established in 1823，by Catharine Beecher，making it one of the firstmajor educational institutions for women in the United States.By 1826 it had enrolled nearly 100 students.It implemented then—radical programs such as physical education courses for women.Beecher sought the aid of Mary Lyon in the development of the seminary.The Hartford Female Seminary closed towards the latter half of the 19th century.The school was first hosted in a third-floor room in a building at Main and Kinsley Streets in Hartford，then in the basement of the North Church.In 1827 the schoolmoved into a new neoclassical building at100 Pratt Street.
10-20 Hartford Female Sem inary
4 the Chicago Women’s Athletic Club
Woman's Athletic Club is a historic building located along the Magnificent Mile in the Near North Side community area of Chicago，Illinois.Founded in 1898，it is the home of the first athletic club for women in the United States.Itwas named a Chicago Landmark on October 2，1991.
5 Vassar College
Vassar College is a private，coeducational，liberal arts college in Poughkeepsie，New York.Founded in 1861 by Matthew Vassar，itwas the second degree-granting institution of higher education for women in the United States，closely following Elmira College.It became coeducational in 1969，and now has a gender ratio at the national average.The school is one of the historic Seven Sisters，the first elite women's colleges in the U.S.，and has a historic relationship with Yale University，which suggested amerger before they both became coeducational institutions.
10-21 Vassar College
6 Mills College
Mills College is a private liberal arts and sciences college in Oakland，California.Millswas founded as the Young Ladies Seminary in 1852 in Benicia，California.The schoolwas relocated to Oakland，California，in 1871，and became the firstwomen's college west of the Rockies.Currently，Mills is an undergraduate women's college with graduate programs for students of all genders.In 2014，Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S.to adoptan admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender student.Mills College offersmore than 45 undergraduatemajors and minors and over 30 graduate degrees，certificates，and credentials.
10-22 Mills College
10-23 Dudley Sargent
7 Dud ley Sargent
Dudley Allen Sargent（born in Belfast，Maine，28 September 1849；died 21 July 1924）was a United States educator，lecturer and director of physical training.In 1869，he was invited by Bowdoin College to direct the gymnasium.From 1879 until his retirement in 1919，Sargentwas director of the Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University.In 1881—1916 Sargentwas director of the Normal School of Physical Training at Cambridge，Massachusetts，and after 1916 was president of its successor，the Sargent School of Physical Education.This school was for the training of teachers of physical education.
8 Boston Normal School of Gymnastics（BNSG）
The Boston Normal School of Gymnasticswas established in 1889 by the late Mrs.Mary Hemenway.Its object is to supply the best opportunities in America formen and women who desire to prepare themselves to conduct gymnasia，or to direct physical training，according to the most approved modern methods.To this end thorough and scientific instruction is provided，not only in the Ling，or Swedish，system of gymnastics，but also in those general principles of physiology，psychology，and the hygiene of the human body，upon which sound physical trainingmust always depend.
9 Senda Berenson
Senda Berenson Abbott（March 19，1868—February 16，1954）was a figure ofwomen's basketball and the author of the first Basketball Guide for Women（1901—1907）.She was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame as a contributor on July 1，1985，the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1987，and theWomen's Basketball Hall of Fame in 1999.Berenson was the first person to introduce and adapt rules for women's basketball to Smith College in 1899，modifying the existing men's rules.
10 All-American Girls Professional Baseball League（AAGPBL）
The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League（AAGPBL）was a professional women's baseball league founded by Philip K.Wrigley which existed from 1943 to 1954.The AAGPBL is the forerunner ofwomen's professional league sports in the United States.Over 600 women played in the league，which consisted of eventually 10 teams located in the American Midwest.In 1948，league attendance peaked at over 900，000 spectators.
11 Virginia Slims Tour
Also named“The Virginia Slims Circuit”.Itwas a tennis tour consisting of a group of originally nine female professional players.Formed in 1970，the Virginia Slims Circuit eventually became the basis for the later WTA Tour.The players，dubbed the Original 9，rebelled against the United States Lawn Tennis Association（USLTA）due to the wide inequality between the amount of prize money paid tomale tennis players and to female tennis players.
12 Bobby Riggs
Robert Larimore Riggs（February 25，1918—October 25，1995）was an American tennis champion whowas firstas an amateur in 1939，then as a professional in 1946 and 1947.He played his first professional tennismatch on December 26，1941.In 1939，Riggs won Wimbledon，the U.S.National Championships（now U.S.Open），and was runner-up at the French Championships.In September 1973，at age 55，he held one such eventagainst the then currentwomen's champion Billie Jean King，which he lost.Their prime time“Battle of the Sexes”match remains one of themost famous tennis events of all time.
13 the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women（AIAW）
The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women（AIAW）was founded in 1971 to govern collegiate women's athletics in the United States and to administer national championships（see AIAW Champions）.It evolved out of the Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics forWomen（founded in 1967）.The association was one of the biggest advancements for women's athletics on the collegiate level.Throughout the 1970s，the AIAW grew rapidly in membership and influence，in parallel with the national growth of women's sports following the enactment of Title IX.
10-24 The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women
14 Title IX of the Education Amendments
Title IX is a federal civil rights laWin the United States of America that was passed as part of the Education Amendments of1972.This is Public Law No.92—318，86 Stat.235（June 23，1972），codified at20 U.S.C.§§1681—1688.Itwas co-authored and introduced by Senator Birch Bayh in the U.S.Senate，and Congresswoman Patsy Mink in the House.Itwas later renamed the Patsy T.Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act following Mink's death in 2002.
15 the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics（NAIA）
The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics（NAIA）is a college athletics association for small colleges and universities in North America.For the 2018—2019 season，it has251 member institutions，of which two are in British Columbia，one in the U.S.Virgin Islands，and the rest in the conterminous United States.The NAIA，whose headquarters is in Kansas City，Missouri，sponsors 26 national championships.
16 Sports Illustrated
Sports Illustrated（SI）is an American sportsmagazine owned by Authentic Brands Group，and was first published in August1954.Itwas the firstmagazine with circulation over onemillion to win the National Magazine Award for General Excellence twice.It is also known for its annual swimsuit issue，which has been published since 1964，and has spawned other complementarymedia works and products.
Gear
Gear was an Americanmen'smagazine published by Bob Guccione，Jr.devoted chiefly to revealing pictorials of popular singers，B-movie actresses，andmodels，alongwith articles on gadgets，cars，fashion，sex，and sports.
Practice for the unit
A.Blank filling
1.In late 1960s，the United States took great pride in the Apollo 11 moon landing，but that success did not__________________，as_________________________in general，and______________________________in particular，sought greater control over their lives.
2.With the changeswrought by______________________________and an______________________________________，African American athletes___________________________________________________，and their athletic presence____________________.
3.During the Revolutionary War，women participated in_____________________acts such as______________________________，____________________________，and___________________________________in managing businesses，but they did not_____________________________in the new republic，as the Revolution fell short of extending equality and freedom to women.
4.________________，a white，middle-class reformer who wrote widely on women's issues in antebellum society，lamented in 1856 that______________________________and mental destruction.
5.Suffrage，first proposed at the______________________________________in New York in 1848，remained_________________________________________________________________.
6.Such activities challenged____________________________________________________________________ and generated________________thatwould persist_______________________________________________________________ .
7.Although female athletes did not gain___________________________________________________ accorded tomen，they did make_________________________during the 1920s as part of the larger sweep of social change and____________________________________.
8.Women made great gains in securing their own opportunities during the 1970s，and_____________led theway.Thewin established___________________________________________________________ ，and she used her television appearances as an outspoken advocate for_______________________________________________________________.
9.The Title IX law was very often applied to_________________________________________________，and，although itwas challenged by the NCAA，schools，coaches，and individuals，the courts________________，thus prompting wholesale changes in the funding and selection of teams in all public-school programs.
10.By 2002，the number of_______________________________had more than_____________from 1977，and the best players_____________________________________that of some of their male counterparts.
B.Short-answer questions
1.Although Jesse Owens had won four goldmedals in Berlin Olympic Games，what did he experience after he returned to America？
2.What role did“Republican Mothers”play？
3.When was Title IX produced and what did it require？
C.Critical thinking
1.What changes did Civil Rights Movement bring to the world of sports？
2.What changes did Title IX bring to women in various sports？