Text A Sociology of alternative sports
Alternative sports，adventure sports or extreme sports are activities perceived as involving a high degree of risk.These activities often involve speed，height，a high level of physical exertion and highly specialized gear.Many sports can be considered alternatives to dominant sport forms，but the term alternative sport has generally been used in sociology to refer to a group of activities thatmeet a particular set of organizational criteria.Alternative sports initially existed outside of formal sports organizations and participantswere primarily young people who，for one reason or another，did not fit into the world of traditional youth sports such as baseball and football.Though they differ greatly from one another，alternative sports can be loosely defined as：（1）participant controlled and directed，rather than organized through a governing body or other official organization；（2）individually focused，emphasizing personal achievements；（3）focused less on competition than traditional sports；and（4）generally possessing an insider requirement.That is，they aremore likely than traditional sports to encompass their own subculture—one that stands in opposition to the dominant culture.In otherwords，skateboarders，for example，are not just people who happen to ride skateboards，but are“skaters”expected to participate in a lifestyle associated with involvement in the sport.
Some alternative sports were originally titled“extreme”.This appears to have meant that they involved risk taking thatmoremainstream sports did not（like BASE jum ping1 or cliff diving）.The term was appropriated by the media and applied to any sport that was not generally considered a sports staple on television in the 1990s，and the label has by and large been abandoned by participants and，to some degree，by the media.Increasingly，mass media narratives refer to alternative sports as“action sports.”
Throughout the 1990s，alternative sports became increasingly popular.All sports cable television networks like ESPN and Fox Sports have been instrumental in exposing the sports to the public，particularly targeting the attention of youngmales（aged 12—34）in their coverage.These sports are now featured on ESPN，ESPN2，ESPNEWS，ESPN Classic，and ABC.The best-known alternative sporting events are ESPN's annual X Games and Winter X Games，which feature a varying array of sports including skateboarding，snowboarding，inline skating，motocross，bicycle motocross（BMX），ski boarding and snow mountain biking.The X Games premiered in 1995（originally titled the eXtreme Games）.ESPN reported thatbetween 1994 and 1998 its audience for alternative sports increased 119 percent and that the 2003 X Games were expected to reach more than 110 million homes in 145 countries and territoriesworldwide.Corporate sponsors have also gotten into the action and previous X Games sponsors include AT&T，Coors，Nike，Taco Bell，Mountain Dew，Chevrolet，VISA，and Snickers.According to a recentnewspaper article，sales of skateboard shoes exceed$1.4 billion annually，more than the total regular season game receipts ofmajor league baseball，and skateboarder Tony Hawk's series of video games earned him a$20 million advance from Activision while his clothing line brings in$50 million annually.
Participation rates also reflect the increasing popularity of alternative sports.According to a survey conducted by the National Sporting Goods Association（NSGA2），between 1996 and 2001 participation rates for snowboarding increased 72 percent and skateboarding participation rates increased 106 percent.These two historically alternative sports had the highest growth rates of all sports surveyed.For example，baseball，a more traditional sport，had a growth rate of only 8 percent and two other traditional sporting activities had declining participation rates—footballwas down 4 percentand basketball was down 12 percent.
The rapid increase in popularity of these sports has led researchers to examine why they are attracting somany（especially young）people and what they offer that perhapsmainstream sports do not.NSGA Vice President of Information and Research Thomas B.Doyle points out that snowboarding participation rates have tripled since 1990，while alpine skiing rates dropped more than 30 percent，and adds that skateboarding has experienced phenomenal growth since 1995，when it hit a low of only 4.5 million participants.Doyle contends that the growth of these two sportsmay reflect the fact that young people often choose activities that set them apart from adults.He suggests that traditional sports like skiingmay have become toomainstream to be of great interest to adolescents and young adults.
Sociologists have addressed the claim that traditional sports are toomainstream for young people today and have examined what has historically attracted individuals to alternative sports.Beal analyzed the subculture status of alternative sport in her study of skateboarding in the early 1990s and indicated thatmembers of the skateboarding culture held beliefs about their sport that stood in contrast to the ideals of commercial sport.They were generally noncompetitive，process rather than goal oriented and emphasized participant control of sporting events.The skaters were successful in resisting outsider control of their sport.Rinehart and Grenfell studied a group of BMX riders and examined the differences between the participants'experiences of riding at a self-made bicycle track and ata corporate sponsored“park”.They found that the riders often preferred the home-made course，as it was truer to the original values of the sport，including participant control and informal organization.
Rinehart has studied a variety of alternative sports and their associated subcultures and has addressed the conflicts that arise as the sports become increasingly commercialized.He argues that participants'desire to have their sports legitimated and to prosper individually from their participation leads them to take part in commercial events like the X Games，but there they encounter conflicts with corporate and media sponsors who have different ideas about how to organize and present the sports.Rinehart contends that，while athletes participate in commercial events like the X Games，they simultaneously resistoutsider definitions ofwhatand who they are.He concludes that control over the presentation of alternative sports is significant because those who own and control the presentation of these events control not only the economics，but also the very core or“soul”of these sports.
What is emergingwithin alternative sport subcultures are struggles between corporate culture producerswho are attempting to organize and present these sports like mainstream sport forms and the participants themselves，who seek tomaintain some control of their sports and of the“authentic”roots of their cultures as they become commercialized.Beal and Weidman，for example，found that skateboarderswere indeed resisting outsider definitions of their culture and were participating in the production of their culture by influencing the advertising industry in itsmarketing strategies toward skaters.Within snowboarding，Winter X Games participants were dissatisfied with ESPN's organization and presentation of their sport and engaged in—symbolic forms of resistance to the commercialized nature of the event.Snowboarders refused to be interviewed，criticized the judging format，and called the competition“a joke.”However，this resistance did notappear to be havingmuch success，as the opposition was largely in the form of verbal complaining rather than organized action directed at change.In addition，their complaintswere certainly not broadcast by ESPN or affiliates and the participants were essentially supporting the commercialized version of their sports by participating in the X Games events.The snow boarders appeared to be ambivalent about the role of commercial interests.
Commercialization can be both beneficial and detrimental for alternative sports and their adherents.While commercialization results in organizational changes such as outsider control，increased competition，and extrinsic rewards for performances，italso provides new opportunities for participants includingmonetary rewards，product endorsements，new facilities，and video and television appearances.Themost current data indicate thatwhile athletes dislike the organizational changes and the commercial versions of their sports，they recognize that the newfound popularity and media coverage of their activities have opened new avenues for involvement in alternative sports，in terms of both sport participation and business ventures.For example，public and privately funded skateboard parks can now be found inmany cities and towns，ski resorts now cater to snowboarders by building terrain parks，and themost talented athletes can earn income through contests，corporate sponsorships，and media performances.Though many alternative sport participants continue to view participation in the commercial version of their activities as“selling out”，there is evidence of an increasing acceptance of themainstream status of alternative sports and attempts to capitalize on their current popularity through participant owned businesses that market equipment and apparel host demonstrations and contests，and produce videos of sport performances.
Alternative sports are overwhelmingly amale activity approximately 17 percentof skateboarders，20 percent of surfers，and 30 percent of snowboarders are female.At ESPN's X Games，arguably the most publicized currentalternative sporting event，only 15 percentof the competitors in 2000 were female.Of the three most popular events，skateboarding，BMX，and inline skating，only inline skating featured a women's division，and there were six female competitors as compared to 20 in themen's division.While some competitors and ESPN organizers attribute the disparity to a genuine lack of interest on the part of women，many female participants call it sexism.Male participants in alternative sports often attribute the lack of female involvement in their sports to the difficulty of the activities—claiming，for example，that BMX requires exceptional upper body strength.Advocates ofwomen's participation in these sports contend that it has little to do with physical ability or lack of interest and much more to do with discouragement from male participants.Girls and women weremarginalized as a result of discouragement bymale skateboarders and trivializing terminology such as referring to female skaters as“Skate Betties.”Within skateboarding，girls and women weremost frequently relegated to the role of girlfriend or supporter ofmale skaters.
Alternative sport is a sub-category of sports that are described as any kind of sport“of a character or kind farthest removed from the ordinary or average”.These kinds of sports often carry out the potential risk of serious and permanent physical injury and even death.However，these sports also have the potential to produce drastic benefits on mental and physical health and provide opportunity for individuals to engage fully with life.Health is an individual's state ofmental and physical wellbeing in which they aremaximizing their daily potential.It is divided into twomain categories：mental and physical.
Mental health is a cognitive state of well-being，in this state the individual is aware of his or her own potential and is able to；cope with stresses of normal life and work productively，aswell as willing to give their contribution to his or her community in a beneficialway.Physical health can be defined as a state of complete physicalwell-being in which an individual ismechanically fit to perform their daily activities and dutieswithout any problem.
In outdoor alternative sports，participants get to experience the emotion of intense thrill，usually associated with the extreme sports.Even though some extreme sports present a higher level of risk，people still choose to embark in the experience of extreme sports for the sake of the adrenaline.According to Sigmund Freud，we have an instinctual“death wish”，which is a subconscious inbuilt desire to destroy ourselves，proving that in the seek for the thrill，danger is considered pleasurable.
Notes：
1 BASE Jum ping
BASE jumping is an extreme sport in which a person parachutes from a fixed object.The term BASE is an acronym for Buildings，Antennas，Spans，and Earth，referring to the objects that provide the jump platform.It differs from skydiving in that it happens at a lower altitude and airspeed，and the jump occurs close to a jump platform.
11-1 BASE Jumping
2 NSGA
The National Sporting Goods Association（NSGA）has worked on behalf of itsmembers since the very beginning.In 1927，the association's founders fought an unfair taxation on sporting goods in the state of South Carolina.This fight led to the formation of the Sporting Goods Dealer's Association of South Carolina.Soon after，other regional sporting goods associations began to form in the East，Midwest and the South.Finally，these associationsmerged into one and in 1936，the name was officially changed to National Sporting Goods Association.Today，for more than 30 years，NSGA has provided unique industry-specific research utilized by organizations large and small.The result is historically recognized data that is the most relevant information for your everyday business needs.Members receive discounts on research offerings.