Text A Sport and civil rightsmovement
Civil RightsMovementwas a 20th Century extension of19th Century abolitionism that sought for racial equality in the United States primarily through nonviolent protest.Following the U.S.Supreme Court decision in Brown v.Board of Education1 of Topeka（1954），civil rights activists attempted to end entrenched segregationist practices.
10-1 Jesse Owens in Running
Throughout the 1930s，sportwas given more overt political significance，as fascists gained control of government in Italy，Germany，Spain，and Japan.Hitler's doctrine of Aryan supremacy2 could be challenged within the athletic sphere，particularly in sports that required individual competition.Hitler's belief in the construction of an Aryan super race suffered a severe setback in 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.At the competition，African American athletes severely damaged the doctrine of Aryan supremacy by defeating German male athletes in the most prominent track-and-field events.Jesse Owens，the collegiate champion from Ohio State University，won four gold medals，a record that lasted nearly 50 years.Despite Owens'heroics at the Olympics，he returned to a largely racist America.At a New York reception in his honor，he could noteven enter through the front door of the Hotel.In addition，the AAU（Amateur Athletic Union）3 denied him the Sullivan Award4，honoring the best amateur athlete，and thereafter Owens earned income by racing against dogs and horses in deplorable exhibitions.Thus，his heroic stature proved tenuous as an African American.
10-2 Jackie Robinson
Nearly a century after their emancipation，American ethnics still faced widespread inequalities.A devout Methodist who was sympathetic to the plight of African Americans，Branch Rickey5 also proved a shrewd businessman.He organized the United States Baseball League，purportedly another major league for black teams.Rickey had signed Jackie Robinson to a contract，and Robinson，a four-sport letterman at UCLA，demonstrated leadership qualities and confronted racism when he was court-martialed for refusing to obey segregationist norms during the war.Rickey admired Robinson's courage and fortitude.Robinson played baseball for the black Kansas City Monarchs before signingwith Rickey's black franchise，led the league in batting average，and the next year Rickey brought him to the parent organization.There he endured segregated spring training，racial taunts，threats of violence，and lurking strikes by teammates and opponents.Despite the overwhelming prohibitions and obstacles，he persevered，with the weight of all African Americans to bear.If Rickey’s“Great Experiment”6，as it was termed，failed，it could have ramifications for race relations and blacks'socialmobility for years to come.
Robinson's entry to the ranks of Major League Baseball came seven years before the crucial Brown v.Board of Education case，in which the Supreme Court struck down segregation.In that sense，Robinson，Rickey，and Brooklyn Dodgers7 served as catalysts to social change in the United States.Robinson's exciting play，along with his dignified demeanor，aswell as the thousands of African Americanswho turned out towitness his games，indicated thata significant transition had already occurred in race relationships.
In 1954，they moved to address such disadvantages in the courts by challenging segregated school systems.In the case of Brown v.Board ofEducation，the Supreme Courtbanned the practice of segregation in all areas—not just education—thus igniting the Civil Rights Movement.But social discrimination cannot be eliminated by law alone，and it continued in many areas，including the labor market，aswell as sport.In 1963，Martin Luther King Jr.，the acknowledged leader of the nonviolent Civil Rights Movement of African Americans，led amarch in Washington，D.C.，which，because of its symbolic meanings，drew enormous attention to the cause.At the same time，athletes began increasingly to question the accepted idealism of sport and its function as an integrative force in American society.
10-3 Althea Gibson
In the world of sports，African American Althea Gibson appeared as an early harbinger of change and generatedmuchneeded interest in tennis.American tennis had languished as top amateur players joined the professional ranks，and the United States managed only three Davis Cup8 victories between 1950 and 1967.Still，in 1950，Gibson proved a bright spot as the first African American allowed to participate in the United States Lawn Tennis Association's national championship.Aided by the former white champion Alice M arble9，Gibson fulfilled an integrative role similar to that of Jackie Robinson in baseball.Shewon the French Open10 in 1956，as well as theWimbledon singles and doubles titles，and shewon the U.S.championship the following year.The Associated Press11 named her its female Athlete of the Year in 1957，a first for a black woman，and she earned the honor again the next year.She entered the professional ranks in 1959 and turned to professional golf as amember of the LPGA（The Ladies Professional Golf Association）12 in 1964.
10-4 TexasWestern College Basketball Team
In 1966，the NCAA's championship basketball game featured Texas Western College（now the University of Texas at El Paso）against favored University of Kentucky13，a perennial collegiate power.Kentucky's starting lineup，consisting of five white players，faced five African American starters for Texas Western，which won 72-65，thusmarking a transition in team composition and race relations in America.African Americans had long been allowed to entertain white audiences as musicians and athletes，and the best could accumulate a measure of wealth and fame，so long as they did not disrupt the prescribed social order ofwhite dominance.Forminorities，however，the road to success had always been littered with more obstacles，and pioneers carried an extra burden.If a black athlete，carrying the hopes of black citizens，failed，it couldmean untold years ofwaiting for another prospect，one acceptable to the establishment，to come along.
In 1969，the United States took great pride in the Apollo 11 moon landing，but that success did not allay racial issues in sport，as athletes in general，and African American athletes in particular，sought greater control over their lives.In pro basketball，the NBA-ABA league rivalry led the Denver Nuggets of the ABA to sign Spencer Haywood，a 20-year-old sophomore from the University of Detroitwho had played on the 1968 Olympic team.Haywood had a phenomenal year in the ABA，leading the league in scoring and rebounding and earning recognition not only as Rookie of the Year but also as Most Valuable Player.From 1957 through 1969，the Boston Celtics dominated pro basketball，winning 11 NBA championships，largely through the efforts of Bill Russell，the team's African American center and，later，player-coach.
10-5 Julius Erving
Julius“Doctor J”Erving created even more excitement for fans.He left the University of Massachusetts after two years to join the Virginia Squires of the ABA in 1971 before playing in the NBA，first for the New York Nets and then for the Philadelphia 76ers.His style of play was electrifying，as his phenomenal jumping ability，combined with expressive flair that later became known as“black style，”enabled him to take over a game，shifting the offensive focus from the big center under the basket to the brilliant individualistwho was extremelymobile with the ball.Erving ended his career in 1987.Such accomplishments raised African Americans to the pinnacle of the sportsworld and thoroughly demolished any lingering Social Darwinist doubt about the abilities of nonwhites.
10-6 Curt Flood
In baseball，Curt Flood challenged the reserve clause（standard in players'contracts），which tied them to one team.An all-star centerfielder for the St.Louis Cardinals14，he refused to accept a trade to the Philadelphia Phillies15 in 1969 because he detested being treated like a piece of property.The baseball players'union，established in 1953，assumed real power with the hiring of Marvin Miller16 as its executive director in 1966.Under Miller，players continually challenged the reserve clause and the owners'ability to bind them to one team and hold down their salaries.In 1969，they boycotted spring training，and three years later they went on strike，forcing the owners to grant better pension plans.
With the changeswroughtby the Civil RightsMovement and an increasing acceptance of diversity，African American athletes attained greater exposure in themedia，and their athletic presence fostered societal changes.In 1974，Frank Robinson became the first black manager in Major League Baseballwhen he was named to lead the Cleveland Indians17.That year also saw Hank Aaron hit his 715th home run18，thus surpassing the seemingly insurmountable record set decades earlier by Babe Ruth19—and doing so amid death threats by racistswho still subscribed to a false belief in white supremacy.He finished his career with a total of755 home runs and a.305 batting average and held the career records formost extra base hits，most total bases，and most runs batted in.In track and field，Edwin Moseswon the 400-meter hurdles race at the Montreal Olympics in 1976，and a year later he started a 122-racewinning streak that lasted nearly 10 years.
NFL players had formed a labor union in 1956，but it lacked impetus until the NFL-AFLmerger in 1966.Thereafter，the players demanded better salaries and pension plans，as well as the right to counsel during contract negotiations.Players went on strike before the 1968 season and won some concessions from owners，who raised theminimum salary from$7，000 to$12，000.The owners retaliated，however，by trading or demoting the player representativeswho had led the strike.
Notes：
1 Brown v.Board of Education
Brown v.Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schoolswas unconstitutional.Brown v.Board of Education was one of the cornerstones of the civil rightsmovement，and helped establish the precedent that“separate-but-equal”education and other serviceswere not，in fact，equal at all.
2 Aryan supremacy
It is a concept called“Nordic supremacy”.The belief that the Aryan race（Caucasian，Blondehair，blue-eyed Northern Europeans）are better than other human races（especially，in regards to the Jewish race）.Adolf Hitler，the leader of the Nazi Party，argued that the Germans was superior to all other races.Hitler became obsessed with“racial purity”and used the word“Aryan”to describe his idea of a“pure German race”or Herrenvolk.The“Aryan race”had a duty to control the world.
3 AAU（Amateur Athletic Union）
The Amateur Athletic Union（AAU）is an amateur sports organization based in the United States.A multi-sport organization，the AAU is dedicated exclusively to the promotion and development of amateur sports and physical fitness programs.Since its inception in 1888，the AAU has set the standard for amateur sports in the United Stateswith one goal inmind：“Sports For All，Forever.” It ismore than amotto-it has been the focus and drive of AAU for 130 years and counting for sports in the United States and throughout the world.
4 Sullivan Award
Known as the“Oscar”of sports awards，the AAU James E.Sullivan Award，presented by the Amateur Athletic Union，is awarded annually in April to“themost outstanding amateur athlete in the United States”.Representatives from the AAU created the AAU Sullivan Award with the intent to recognize amateur contributions and achievements from non-professional athletes across the country.
5 Branch Rickey
Wesley Branch Rickey（Dec.20，1881—Dec.9，1965）was an American baseball player and sports executive.Rickey was instrumental in breaking Major League Baseball's color barrier by signing black player Jackie Robinson.He also created the framework for themodernminor league farm system，encouraged the Major Leagues to add new teams through his involvement in the proposed Continental League，and introduced the batting helmet.He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1967.
6 Rickey’s“Great Experiment”
Brooklyn Dodgers executive Branch Rickey became convinced that the integration of African Americans into Major League Baseballwould serve as both amoral cause and an untapped resource of talented players that could strengthen his team.Rickey recruited Jackie Robinson，a former army lieutenant and exceptional athlete who had played numerous sports at UCLA，to initiate his great experiment.
10-7 Brooklyn Dodgers
7 Brook lyn Dodgers
The Brooklyn Dodgers were a Major League baseball team，active primarily in the National League（founded 1876）from 1884 until 1957，after which the club moved to Los Angeles，California，where it continues its history as the Los Angeles Dodgers.The team is noted for signing Jackie Robinson in 1947 as the first black player in themodern major leagues.
8 Davis Cup
The Davis Cup is the premier international team event inmen's tennis.It is run by the International Tennis Federation（ITF）and Kosmos Holding and is contested annually between teams from competing countries in a knock-out format.It is described by the organizers as the“World Cup of Tennis”，and the winners are referred to as the World Champion team.The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States.By 2016，135 nations entered teams into the competition.
10-8 A lice Marble
9 Alice M arble
Alice Marble（September 28，1913—December 13，1990）was an American tennis player who won 18 Grand Slam championships（1936—1940）：five in singles，six in women's doubles，and seven in mixed doubles.Alice Marble Tennis Courts，providing a panoramic view of the Pacific Ocean and the Golden Gate bridge from the top of Russian Hill in San Francisco，is named in honor of her.
10 French Open
The French Open，also called Roland-Garros，is amajor tennis tournament held over twoweeks at the Stade Roland-Garros in Paris，France，beginning in late May.The venue is named after the French aviator Roland Garros.It is the premier clay court tennis championship tournament in the world and the second of the four annual Grand Slam tournaments，the other three being the Australian Open，Wimbledon and the US Open.The French Open is currently the only Grand Slam tournament held on clay，and it is the conclusion of the spring clay court season.Before the Australian Open and the USOpen were converted into hardcourt，the French Open was the lone non-grass tournament.
10-9 The French Open
11 Associated Press
The Associated Press（AP）is an American not-for-profit news agency headquartered in New York City.Founded in 1846，it operates as a cooperative，unincorporated association.Itsmembers are US newspapers and broadcasters.The AP news report，distributed to itsmembers and customers，is produced in English，Spanish and Arabic.The AP has earned 53 Pulitzer Prizes，including31 forphotography，since the award was established in 1917.As of 2016，news collected by the AP was published and republished bymore than 1，300 newspapers and broadcasters.
12 LPGA（The Ladies Professional Golf Association）
The Ladies Professional Golf Association is an American organization for female professional golfers.The organization is headquartered at the LPGA International in Daytona Beach，Florida，and is best known for running the LPGA Tour，a series ofweekly golf tournaments for elite female golfers from around the world.
13 University of Kentucky
The University of Kentucky（UK）is a public university in Lexington，Kentucky.Founded in 1865 by John Bryan Bowman as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky，the university is one of the state's two land-grant universities（the other being Kentucky State University）and the institution with the highest enrollment in the state，with 30，720 students as of Fall 2015.The institution comprises 16 colleges，a graduate school，93 undergraduate programs，99 master programs，66 doctoral programs，and four professional programs.
10-10 University of Kentucky
14 St.Louis Cardinals
The St.Louis Cardinals are an American professional baseball team based in St.Louis，Missouri.The Cardinals compete in Major League Baseball（MLB）as amember club of the National League（NL）Central division.Busch Stadium has been their home ballpark since 2006.One of the nation's oldest and most successful professional baseball clubs，the Cardinals havewon 11World Series championships.The team haswon 19 National League pennants，third-most of any team.St.Louis has also won 14 division titles in the East and Central divisions.
10-11 St.Louis Cardinals
15 Philadelphia Phillies
The Philadelphia Phillies are an American professional baseball team based in Philadelphia.They compete in Major League Baseball（MLB）as a member of the National League（NL）East division.Since 2004，the team's home stadium has been Citizens Bank Park，located in South Philadelphia.The Phillies are the oldest，continuous，one-name，one-city franchise in American professional sports.
10-12 Philadelphia Phillies
16 Marvin Miller
Marvin Julian Miller（April14，1917—November 27，2012）was an American baseball executivewho served as the Executive Director of the Major League Baseball Players Association（MLBPA）from 1966 to 1982.Under Miller's direction，the players'union was transformed into one of the strongest unions in the United States.In 1992，Red Barber said，“Marvin Miller，along with Babe Ruth and Jackie Robinson，is one of the two or threemost importantmen in baseball history.”Millerwas selected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in December 2019，for induction in 2020.
10-13 Cleveland Indians
17 Cleveland Indians
The Cleveland Indians are an American professional baseball team based in Cleveland，Ohio.They compete in Major League Baseball（MLB）as a member club of the American League（AL）Central division.Since 1994，they have played at Progressive Field.The team's spring training facility is at Goodyear Ballpark in Goodyear，Arizona.Since their establishment as a major league franchise in 1901，the team haswon 10 Central Division titles，six American League pennants，and two World Series championships，in 1920 and 1948.
18 home run
In baseball，a home run（abbreviated HR）is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to circle the bases and reach home safely in one play without any errors being committed by the defensive team in the process.Inmodern baseball，the feat is typically achieved by hitting the ball over the outfield fence between the foul poles（ormaking contactwith either foul pole）without first touching the ground，resulting in an automatic home run.
19 Babe Ruth
George Herman“Babe”Ruth Jr.（February 6，1895—August16，1948）was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball（MLB）spanned 22 seasons，from 1914 through 1935.Nicknamed“The Bambino”and“The Sultan of Swat”，he began his MLB career as a star left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox，but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees.Ruth established many MLB batting（and some pitching）records，regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered bymany to be the greatest baseball player of all time.In 1936，Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its“first five”inauguralmembers.