五、结 语
文艺复兴至19世纪早期,欧洲经历了宗教、社会和政治的动荡变革以及思想、学术的嬗变与发展。近代欧洲艺术史传统的确立和发展就是这些变革的体现。这一时期的西方艺术史学形成连贯一致的传统,我们可以称之为“古典艺术史”。确立这一传统的关键人物是瓦萨里、温克尔曼和黑格尔。瓦萨里的《意大利艺苑名人传》是文艺复兴时期意大利视觉艺术和艺术写作繁荣发展的结果和体现。通过《意大利艺苑名人传》,瓦萨里在西方思想和学术传统中为艺术史牢固确立了一席之地。同时,作为西方第一部系统的艺术史著述,该书也为后世西方艺术史学确立了一些核心原则。
温克尔曼在很多方面复兴了瓦萨里的史学。因为瓦萨里的史学观念和原则在17—18世纪的传记作家那里一度被遗忘。虽然瓦萨里与温克尔曼的艺术史各有侧重(最显著的就是前者以艺术家为中心,后者以艺术品的视觉风格为核心),但事实上两者在许多重要方面是一致的,包括古希腊和意大利文艺复兴艺术的典范地位、西方艺术史的分期以及对三门视觉艺术精神价值的推崇等。如果说温克尔曼在史学观念和原则上继承了瓦萨里,那么他的材料、对象和方法则来自古物学。就此而言,温克尔曼成了文艺复兴时期以来传记—艺术史和古物学传统的集大成者。当然温克尔曼也做出了自己的独特贡献,即对艺术本质的认识和文化解释。由于温克尔曼的创新,通过艺术史说明人类文化的发展成了西方艺术史学的一项使命。从此,艺术品不再只是趣味和审美的对象,而成为探索人类精神的重要历史文献。温克尔曼的史学革新不仅使德语学界艺术史撰述迅速跃居欧洲前列,而且深刻改变了整个欧洲史学的格局。从文艺复兴到18世纪早期,德国史学一直追随其他国家。[113]在文艺复兴时期,德国学者的榜样是意大利人文主义者开创的人文主义史学。启蒙运动时期,法国和英国的社会—文化史引领西方史学新潮流。[114]在同一时期的哥廷根大学虽然也有一个亲近英法新史学的群体[115],但就史学原创性而言,他们仍不及英国和法国学者。而温克尔曼的史学革新使作为文化史一个分支的艺术史率先走到了欧洲前列。
到19世纪早期,黑格尔将温克尔曼的文化—艺术史进一步拓展并提升为囊括整个人类艺术的艺术—精神史。其中,不同时期和民族的艺术都被纳入一个统一和进步的艺术史体系。每个民族的艺术都表现了各自的民族精神,同时又在绝对精神的发展和进步中扮演了特定角色。在德语学界,对艺术史精神价值的这一共识促进了艺术史的学科化。从18世纪晚期到19世纪,德语学界的艺术史率先开始了学科化进程。学院艺术家们发展出对艺术文献、艺术家和艺术品的系统和严谨的研究方法,德语艺术史学由此长期引领欧洲史学潮流,使德语一度成了西方艺术史学的“母语”[116]。直到1933年德国纳粹暴政,西方艺术史学格局才重新改变。随着一大批德国精英艺术史家流亡英国和美国,德语学界的新锐艺术史理论和方法开始传播到英语学界,并促进了英语世界艺术史的革新和学科化。自那时以来,西方艺术史学的中心逐渐从德语世界转向以英美为首的英语世界。[117]
原刊《历史研究》2018年第6期
【注释】
[1]刘君,四川大学历史文化学院教授。
[2]“学术共和国”指17、18世纪欧洲知识人的一种“想象的”学术共同体。这个共同体以超越社会阶层的、自由和平等的知识交流为目标,并通过一些机制和行动得以确立和维系,包括知识精英的通信网、自发组织的学社或学院及其出版物、独立的文学和学术期刊,以及通过旅行和面对面交谈建立个人联系等。参见Katherine Harloe, Winckelmann and The Invention of Antiquity: History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp.31—33。
[3]Giorgio Vasari,The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects, 1550, 1568.本文参考的是中译本乔尔乔·瓦萨里:《意大利艺苑名人传》(四卷),刘耀春等译,武汉:湖北美术出版社、长江文艺出版社,2003年。
[4]现代的“艺术”概念通常只包含五门“主要艺术”(绘画、雕塑、建筑、音乐和诗),并尤其与其中三门视觉艺术联系在一起。Paul O.Kristeller, “The Modern System of the Arts: A Study in the history of Aesthetics(I)”, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.12, no.4 (1951), pp.497—498.
[5]“设计”(disegno)是瓦萨里著作中的一个核心概念。该词既指素描活动,也指艺术家头脑中的构思。瓦萨里将绘画、雕塑和建筑视为“设计艺术”,并将其与装饰艺术和应用艺术做了区分。参见乔尔乔·瓦萨里:《意大利艺苑名人传·辉煌的复兴》,刘耀春等译,武汉:湖北美术出版社、长江文艺出版社,2003年,第12页。
[6]菲利普·索姆认为瓦萨里对艺术家传记的组织显示了依据时代风格建构历史叙事的现代艺术史原则(Philip Sohm, “Ordering History with Style: Giorgio Vasari on the Art of History”, in Antiquity and Its Interpreters, eds..A.Payne, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.46—47)。
[7]乔尔乔·瓦萨里:《意大利艺苑名人传·中世纪的反叛》,刘耀春等译,武汉:湖北美术出版社、长江文艺出版社,2003年,第37页。
[8]乔尔乔·瓦萨里:《意大利艺苑名人传·辉煌的复兴》,刘耀春等译,武汉:湖北美术出版社、长江文艺出版社,2003年,第3—4页。
[9]Carlo Ginzburg, Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method, trans., John and Anne C.Tedeschi, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, pp.108—109.
[10]Frances Gage, Paintings as Medicine: Giulio Mancini and the Efficacy of Art, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008, pp.13—14.
[11]Le vita’pittori, scultoriedarchitetti.Dalpontificato di Gregorio XIII del 1572 in fino a’ tempi di papa UrbanoOttavonel 1642.(Maryvelma Smith O’ Neil, Giovanni Baglione: Artistic Reputation in Baroque Rome, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.177.)
[12]贝罗里推崇表现了美的“理念”(idea)的艺术。他将拉斐尔而非米开朗琪罗奉为意大利文艺复兴艺术的典范,并认为艺术在拉斐尔去世后便陷入衰落,到16世纪晚期和17世纪才开始复兴。他在传记中选择的大都是他认为对现代艺术风格的复兴和发展做出贡献的艺术家。关于贝罗里的艺术史观,参见Giovanni Pietro Bellori, The Lives of the Modern Painters, Sculptors and Architects, trans., Alice Wohl, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp.71—72。
[13]Janis Bell and Thomas Willette ed., Art History in the Age of Bellori: Scholarship and Cultural Politics in Seventeenth-Century Rome, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp.50—51.
[14]Giovanna Perini, “Belllorianamethdus: A Scholar’ s Bildungsgeschichte in Seventeenth-Century Rome”, in Art History in the Age of Bellori: Scholarship and Cultural Politics in Seventeenth-Century Rome, p.64.
[15]Carlo CesareMalvasia, Felsinapittrice, Vite de pittori de bolognesi, 1678.
[16]Giovanna Perini, “Carlo Cesare Malvasia’ s Florentine Letters: Insight into Conflicting Τrends in Seventeenth-Century Italian Art Historiography”, The Art Bulletin, vol.70, no.2(1988), pp.291—292.
[17]曼德尔是一位职业画家,曾在罗马学艺和工作3年,并由此受到意大利新艺术观的影响。与瓦萨里一样,他旨在通过传记歌颂尼德兰的绘画成就并使杰出画家的“名字、生平和作品永世长存”。Karel van Mander, The Lives of the Illustrious Netherlandish and German Painters, translated frοm the first editiοn οf the Schilder-boeck (1603—1604), eds., Hessel Miedema, Doornspijk: Davaco, 1994, p.50.
[18]Joachim von Sandrart, Teutsche Academia der EdlenBau-, Bild- und Mahlerey-Künste, 1675—1679.
[19]除了传记,该书还包含对非欧洲艺术(如中国艺术)的讨论、艺术理论、艺术鉴赏知识以及为艺术家提供的文本和图像资料。Thomas DaCostaKaufmann,“Antiquarianism,the History of Objects and the History of Art before Winckelmann”, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.62., no.3 (2001), pp.529—530.
[20]André Félibien, Entretienssur les vies etsur les ouvrages des plus excellent peintres anciens et modernes, 1666—1685; Roger de Piles, L’Abrégé de la vie des peintres, 1699.
[21]David Mannings, “Jonathan Richardson, Thomas Grey, and the Genealogy of Art”, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.55, no.3 (1994), pp.406—407.
[22]Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, “Eurocentrism and Art History? Universal History and the Historiography of the Arts before Winckelmann”, in Memory and Oblivion, eds., W.Reinink and J.Stumpel, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, p.36.
[23]Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, “Antiquarianism, the History of Objects, and the History of Art before Winckelmann”, pp.538, 540.
[24]文化史家彼得·伯克和考古学家阿兰·施纳普分别考察了人类学和考古学与古物学的关联。参见Peter Burke, “From Antiquarianism to Anthropology”, in Momigliano and Antiquarianism: Foundations of the Modern Cultural Sciences, eds., Peter N.Miller, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006, pp.229—247; Alain Schnapp, “Between Antiquarians and Archaeologists—Continuities and Ruptures”, Antiquity, vol.76 (2002), pp.134—140。
[25]Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography, Oxford: University of California Press, 1990, pp.75—76.
[26]中世纪艺术家就将古代艺术遗存当作一个实用的图像资料库。关于中世纪艺术家对古代艺术的模仿和借用,参见Erwin Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1969。
[27]Paula Findlen, “Possessing the Past: the Material World of the Italian Renaissance”, The American Historical Review, vol.103, no.1 (1998), p.95.
[28]Angelo Mazzocco, “The antiquarianism of Francesco Petrarca”, The Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol.7 (1977), p.207.
[29]Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity, Oxford: Blackwell, 1988, p.37.
[30]Sarah McHam, Pliny and the Artistic Culture of the Italian Renaissance, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013, pp.67—71.
[31]Carol Herselle Krinsky, “Seventy-Eight Vitruvius Manuscripts”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol.30 (1967), p.36.
[32]《自然史》的拉丁文本印刷本于1469年在威尼斯刊印。1476年,该书的第一个意大利文印刷本问世。参见Sarah McHam, Pliny and the Artistic Culture of the Italian Renaissance, p.10。《论建筑十书》的拉丁文印刷本最早在1486年出现。1521年,该书第一个意大利文插图版,即著名的“科莫维特鲁威”刊印。Michael J.Waters, “A Renaissance without Order Ornament, Single-sheet Engravings and the Mutability of Architectural Prints”, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol.71, no.4 (2012), pp.504—505.
[33]比昂多对罗马城地形的描绘主要依据了他在卡西诺山修道院发现的一个公元4世纪的古罗马城区建筑目录,该手稿记录了古罗马城14个城区的主要建筑。
[34]乔尔乔·瓦萨里:《意大利艺苑名人传·辉煌的复兴》,刘耀春等译,武汉:湖北美术出版社、长江文艺出版社,2003年,第74—75页。
[35]Francis Ames-Lewis, The Intellectual Life of the Early Renaissance Artist, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000, p.140.
[36]关于利古里奥制作的古罗马城图像及其依据的资料,参见Howard Burns, “Pirro Ligorio’ s Reconstruction of Ancient Rome: the Anteiqvae vibis Imago of 1561”, in Pirro Ligorio: Artist and Antiquarian, eds., Robert W.Gaston, Florence: Silvana Editoriale, 1988, pp.19—92。
[37]有关文艺复兴时期君主和贵族的雕塑花园的开放性,参见David Cο※n, “The ‘Lex Hortorum’ and Access to Gardens of Latium during the Renaissance”, in David Cο※n, Magnificent Buildings, Splendid Gardens, eds., Vanessa Sellers, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008, pp.164—189。
[38]Francis Haskell and Nicolas Penny, Taste and Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500—1900, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981, pp.17—18.
[39]Leonardo Barkan, Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999, pp.194—195.
[40]Leonardo Barkan, Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999, pp.110—112.
[41]关于弗尔维奥和奥尔西尼,参见Francis Haskell, History and Its Images: Art and the Interpretation of the Past, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993, pp.28—30, 39—41。
[42]Francis Haskell, Painters and Patrons: Art and Society in Baroque Italy, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980, pp.101—102.
[43]Peter Burke, “Images as Evidence in Seventeenth-Century Europe”, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.64, no.2 (2003), pp.277—278.
[44]早期基督教的物质遗存在中世纪就是被狂热收藏的对象。不过直到16世纪晚期,随着早期基督教地下墓窟的发现和反宗教改革的影响,“基督教考古”才真正发展起来。参见Andrea M.Gáldy, Cosimo I de Medici as Collector, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009, pp.166—169。
[45]Alain Schnapp, The Discovery of the Past: The Origins of Archaeology, trans., Ian Kinners and Gillian Varndell, London: British Museum Press, 1996, pp.182, 185—186.
[46]Peter N.Miller, History and Its Objects: Antiquarianism and Material Cultural since 1500, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2017, pp.64—65.
[47]Peter Burke, “Images as Evidence in Seventeenth-Century Europe”, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.64, no.2 (2003), pp.293—295.
[48]Krzysztof Pomian, Collections and Curiosities: Paris and Venice 1500—1800, trans., Elizabeth Wiles-Portier, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, pp.79—81.
[49]Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, Taste and the Antiquity: The Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500—1900, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981, xiii.
[50]关于法国启蒙学者对古物学家的批评,参见Krzysztof Pomian, Collections and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500—1800, trans., Elizabeth Wiles-Portier, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, pp.170—184。
[51]Ingo Herklotz, “Arnaldo Momigliano’ s ‘Ancient History and the Antiquarian’: A Critical Review”, in Momigliano and Antiquarianism: Foundations of the Modern Cultural Sciences, eds., Peter N.Miller, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006,pp.142—143.
[52]Krzysztof Pomian, Collections and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500—1800, trans., Elizabeth Wiles-Portier, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, p.240.
[53]Krzysztof Pomian, Collections and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500—1800, trans., Elizabeth Wiles-Portier, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, p.97.
[54]Krzysztof Pomian, Collections and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500—1800, trans., Elizabeth Wiles-Portier, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, p.175.
[55]Francis Haskell, History and Its Images: Art and the Interpretation of the Past, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993, p.181.
[56]Udo Kultermann, The History of Art History, New York: Abaris Books, 1993, p.47.
[57]关于温克尔曼对瓦萨里艺术史学的继承,参见Donald Preziosi eds., The Art of Art History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp.13—16。
[58]参见Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp.79—81。
[59]帕埃斯托姆(Paestum)或波塞冬尼亚,是“大希腊”(Magna Graecia)的一个重要贸易中心。公元前560年至公元前440年,希腊人在此修建了三座神庙。18世纪早期,这些古希腊建筑遗迹开始引起意大利、法国和英国建筑师和古物学的关注,由此激发了欧洲的“希腊复兴”。参见John Wilton-Ely, Piranesi Paestum & Soane, Munich London New York: Prestel Verlag, 2013, pp.25—27。
[60]“希腊—罗马之争”(The Graeco-Roman Controversy)主要在意大利建筑师、古物学家皮拉内西(Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1720—1778)与法国古物学家马里埃特(Pierre-Jean Mariette , 1694—1774)、卡吕斯之间进行。前者依据文献和古代建筑遗存主张罗马艺术的优越性,后者则借助古希腊宝石雕刻和意大利、小亚细亚等地的古希腊建筑倡导古希腊艺术的优越性。参见Lola Kator-kazovsky, Piranesi as Interpreter of Roman Architecture and the Origins of His Intellectual World, Florence: Leo S.Olschki, 2006, pp.30—36。
[61]Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann,“Antiquarianism, the History of Objects and the History of Art before Winckelmann”, p.537.
[62]Katherine Harloe, Winckelmann and the Invention of Antiquity: History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp.52—54.
[63]哈罗认为,温克尔曼对艺术和古希腊艺术的兴趣最初来自他与德累斯顿的艺术家和鉴赏家的交往和友谊,而他的“思考”一文就是这一联系的产物。参见Katherine Harloe, Winckelmann and the Invention of Antiquity: History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp.57—63。
[64]关于这三件小雕像进入德累斯顿的始末,参见Jens Daehner, “The Herculaneum Women in Eighteenth-Century Europe”, in Rediscovering the Ancient World on the Bay of Naples, 1710—1890, eds., Carol C.Mattusch, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013, pp.42—43。
[65]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, “Onthe Imitation of the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks”, in German Essays on Art History, eds., Gert Schi☆, New Yοrk: Cοntinuum, 2004, pp.12—13.
[66]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.8.
[67]这些论文发表在弗里德里希·尼科拉伊(Friedrich Nicolai)和摩西·门德尔松(Moses Mendelssen)创办的《美文与自由艺术文库》上(Bibiliothek der schönen Wissenschaften und der freyen Künst)。参见Katherine Harloe, Winckelmann and The Invention of Antiquity: History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp.65—66。
[68]正如威尔默朗指出的,温克尔曼对古代艺术的研究不仅依据对实物的经验研究,也使用了他认为可靠的复制品,即素描和版画。他的《古代艺术史》是最早的插图艺术史之一,包含了24幅古物版画。Ingrid R.Vermeulen, Picturing Art History: The Rise of the Illustrated History of Art in the Eighteenth Century, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, pp.122—123.
[69]关于这些信和报告的出版、翻译及其在当时欧洲文化艺术界的影响,参见Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Letter and Report on the Discoveries At Herculaneum, introduction, translation and Commentary by Carol C.Mattusch, Los Angeles: The J.Paul Getty Museum, 2011, pp.22—25。
[70]Thomas Pelzel, “Winckelmann, Mengs and Casanova: A Reappraisal of an Eighteenth-Century Forgery”, The Art Bulletin, vol.54, no.3 (1972), pp.302—303.
[71]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, pp.71—72.
[72]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.76.
[73]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.227.
[74]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.112.
[75]温克尔曼对古代大理石雕塑的年代鉴定大都是含糊的。比如,他将《观景楼的阿波罗》(Apollo Belvedere)奉为希腊古典风格的最高体现,但他对这件雕塑的审美分析却出现在对尼禄皇帝时期艺术的论述中。只有美迪奇别墅的《尼俄柏》(Niobe)被他明确归于公元前5世纪的古典时期。参见Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, pp.308, 333—334。
[76]Claire Farago, “Vision Itself Has Its History: ‘Race’, Nation, and Renaissance Art History”, in Reframing the Renaissance: Visual Cultural in Europe and Latin America 1450—1650, eds., Claire Farago, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995, p.74.
[77]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.111.
[78]参见Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp.41—44。
[79]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.188.
[80]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, pp.198—199.
[81]弗里德里希·梅尼克:《历史主义的兴起》,陆月宏译,南京:译林出版社,2010年,第271页。
[82]Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, introduction by Alex Potts, translation by Harry F.Mallgrave, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006, p.351.
[83]Suzanne L.Marchaud, Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750—1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p.9.
[84]Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p.5.
[85]哈斯克尔认为,温克尔曼对这些人体细节的关注可能与当时举着火把观察雕像的做法有关。参见Francis Haskell and Nicolas Penny, Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500—1900, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981, p.102。
[86]关于海涅的“艺术考古学”,参见Peter Miller, History and Its Objects: Antiquarianism and Material Cultural since 1500, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2017, pp.99—102。
[87]弗朗西斯·哈斯克尔:《达卡维尔:18世纪欧洲的冒险家与艺术史家》,曹意强译,《新美术》2004年第1期,第15页。
[88]Germain Bazin, Histoire de l’histoire de l’art: de Vasari à nosjours, Paris: Albin Michel, 1986, pp.87—88.
[89]Udo Kultermann, The History of Art History, New York: Abaris Books, 1993, p.82.
[90]Luigi Lanzi, The History of Painting in Italy: from the Period of the Revival of the Fine Arts to the End of the Eighteenth century, vol.1, trans., Thomas Roscoe, London: Printed for W.Simpkin and R.Marshall, 1828, iv.
[91]关于“希腊主义”,参见黄洋:《古典希腊理想化:作为一种文化现象的Hellenism》,《中国社会科学》2009年第2期,第54—64页。
[92]Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Essays on Art and Literature(Goethe’ s Collected Works, Vol.3), eds., John Gearey, trans., Ellen von Nardroff and Ernest H.von Nardroff, New York: Suhrkamp Publishers, 1986, p.108.
[93]Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Essays on Art and Literature(Goethe’ s Collected Works, Vol.3), eds., John Gearey, trans., Ellen von Nardroff and Ernest H.von Nardroff, New York: Suhrkamp Publishers, 1986, pp.101—102.
[94]参见E.M.Butler, The Tyranny of Greece over Germany, Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 2011。
[95]黑格尔:《哲学史讲演录》第一卷,贺麟、王太庆译,北京:商务印书馆,1981年,第157页。
[96]G.W.F.Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans., T.M.Knox, New York: Oxford University Press, 1957, p.63.
[97]黑格尔的Geist通常被英译为形而上的“精神”(spirit),并被理解为一种具有能动性的超验精神实体。近年来一些学者认为将其译为“思维”(mind)更贴切。他们认为黑格尔的这个概念并非指一种超验力量,而只是指世界内在固有的理性或逻辑。黑格尔用它说明,社会文化都是人类社会的产物,人类的性格和身份皆由其创造的机制塑造。Jason Gaiger, “Hegel’ s Contested Legacy: Rethinking the Relation between Art History and Philosophy”, The Art Bulletin, vol.93, no.2 (2011), p.180.
[98]G.W.F.Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans., T.M.Knox, New York: Oxford University Press, 1957, pp.8—9.
[99]G.W.F.Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Arpt, trans., T.M.Knox, New York: Oxford University Press, 1957, p.77—82.
[100]E.H.贡布里希:《理想与偶像——价值在历史和艺术中的地位》,范景中、曹意强、周书田译,上海:上海人民美术出版社,1996年,第59页。
[101]贡布里希将黑格尔的美学总结为“审美超验主义”(aesthetic transcendentalism)、“历史集体主义”(historical collectivism)和“历史决定主义”(historical determinism)。E.H.Gombrich, “‘The Father of Art History’: A Reading of the Lectures on Aesthetics of G.W.F.Hegel (1770—1831)”, in Tributes: Interpreters of Our Culture Tradition, Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1984, pp.51—52.
[102]Michael Podero, The Critical Historians of Art, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982, xxii.
[103]Mitchell Schwarzer, “Origins of the Art History Survey Text”, Art Journal, vol.54, no.3 (1995), p.25.
[104]E.H.Gombrich, The Uses of Images: Studies in the Social Functions of Art and Visual Communication, London: Phaidon, 2012, p.264.
[105]库格勒曾申请柏林大学艺术史教授职位,但未成功。Eric Garberson, “Art History in the University: Toelken-Hotho-Kugler”, Journal of Art Historiography, no.5 (2011), p.28.
[106]关于19世纪的“艺术史概览”,参见Mitchell Schwarzer, “Origins of the Art History Survey Text”, Art Journal, vol.54, no.3(1995), pp.24—29。
[107]1783年,学者和艺术家费奥里罗(Johann Dominicus Fiorillo, 1748—1821)开始在哥廷根大学讲授艺术史。费奥里罗的艺术史研究侧重对意大利文艺复兴艺术和艺术文献(特别是瓦萨里的《意大利艺苑名人传》)的考证研究。Carlo Ginzburg, “Battling Over Vasari: A Tale of Three Countries”, in The Art Historian: National Traditions and Institutional Practices, eds., Michael Zimmermann, Williamstown: The Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, 2003, pp.41—42.
[108]Τhοmas DaCοsta Κau☆mann, “American Voices.Remarks on the Earlier History of Art History in the United States and the Reception of Germanic Art Historians”, Journal of Art Historiography, no.2 (2010), pp.7—9.
[109]Peter Burke, “Paradigms Lost: From Göttingen to Berlin”, Common Knowledge, vol.14, no.2 (2008), pp.244—257.
[110]“维也纳学派”(Vienna School)指一批与维也纳大学和维也纳艺术与工业博物馆(the Museum for Art and Industry)有密切关系的艺术史家,他们将考古学、语文学和科学鉴赏学用于艺术史研究。关于“维也纳学派”的方法和成就,参见Julius von Schlosser, “The Vienna School of the History of Art”, trans., and eds., Karl Johns, Journal of Art Historiography, no.1 (2009), pp.1—50。
[111]沃尔夫林认为,不同艺术家以及不同时期和民族的艺术风格皆由一些“物质性因素”决定,包括民族秉性、时代精神(Zeitgeist)和种族性格。他认为“并非所有时代一切皆有可能,视觉有自己的历史,揭示这些物质层面必须被视为艺术史的首要任务”。(Ηenrich Wοl§in, Principles of Art History: Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art, trans., M.D.Hottinger, New York: Dover Publications, 2015, p.11.)李格尔在其《视觉艺术的历史语法》中也认为,揭示 “人类世界观”(Menschliche Weltanschauug)视为艺术史的最高目标。(Alois Riegl, Historical Grammar of the Visual Art, trans.Jacqueline E.Jung, New York: Zone Books, 2004, p.55.)德沃夏克将不同时期的艺术品与其时代精神做了直觉的类比。他去世后,他的一些重要文章以《作为精神史的艺术史》结集出版(Kunstgescichte als Geistesgeschichte, Munich: Piper 1924.英文版为The History of Art as the History of Ideas, trans., John Hardy, London and Boston: Routledge, 1984)。
[112]关于艺术品在布克哈特文化史实践中的重要性,参见Francis Haskell, History and Its Images: Art and the Interpretation of the Past, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993, pp.331—346。 兰普雷希特将艺术视为了解一个时期或民族的文化和集体心理的重要证据。他把中世纪手稿花体首字母作为一种图画进行形式分析,用以探索德国的文化史和德意志民族的集体心理。关于兰普雷希特对中世纪手稿花体首字母的研究,参见Kathryn Brush, “Aby Warburg and Cultural Historian Karl Lamprecht”, in Art History as Cultural History: Warburg’ s Project, eds., Richard Wοοdfield, Αmsterdam: G+B Arts International Imprint, 2001, pp.6—68。
[113]参见刘耀春:《延续与断裂:启蒙运动时期到19世纪欧洲史学的转变》,《世界历史评论》2014年第1期,第131—132页。
[114]关于启蒙时期社会—文化史及其在19世纪史学学科化后的衰落,参见Peter Burke, “The New History of the Enlightenment”, in Medicine, Madness, and Social History, eds., R.Bivins and J.Pickstone, Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp.36—45;Peter Burke, “Paradigms Lost: From Göttingen to Berlin”, pp.244—257。
[115]有关哥廷根大学的社会—文化史,参见Georg G.Iggers, “The University of Göttingen, 1760—1800, and the Transformation of Historical Scholarship”, Storia della Storiografia, vol.2(1982), pp.11—36。
[116]Erwin Panofsky, “Three Decades of Art History in the United States”, in Meaning of the Visual Arts, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982, p.322.
[117]纳粹上台后,一大批德国艺术史家和学术机构流亡英国和美国,比如汉堡的瓦尔堡图书馆和研究所集体迁往伦敦,而汉堡大学艺术史教授潘诺夫斯基则去了美国。对于1933年后流亡美国的德国艺术史家对美国艺术史学的巨大影响和贡献,纽约大学美术研究所主任沃尔特·库克曾形象地说:“希特勒是我最好的朋友,他摇树,我收果子。”Thomas Crow, “The Practice of Art History in America”, Daedalus, vol.135, no.2 (2006), p.76.有关瓦尔堡图书馆和研究所以及流亡英国的德裔艺术史家和学术机构对英国艺术史学的影响,可参见Griselda Pollock, “Art History and Visual Studies in Great Britian and Irenland”, in Art History and Visual Studies: Transnational Discourses and National Frameworks, ed., Matthew Rampley, Thierry Lenain, Hubert Locher, Andrea Pinotti, Charlotte Schoell-Glass and Kitty Zijlmans, Leiden Boston: Brill, 2012, especially pp.361—367。