参考文献
第五章 英语语言技能学习策略与思维训练实践
◇导学
◇第一节 英语听力技能学习策略与思维技能
◇第二节 英语阅读技能学习策略与思维技能
◇第三节 英语写作技能学习策略与思维技能
◇第四节 英语口语技能学习策略与思维技能
◇小结与自评
◇参考文献
导 学
作为英语学习者，你了解自己的英语语言技能使用情况吗？以下哪些描述与你的英语语言技能使用过程相符？请在相符的选项后打勾。
你的选择一定程度上反映了你的英语语言技能，即在听力、阅读、写作、口语等语言技能方面的学习习惯。
了解具体的英语语言技能学习策略和流程，将帮助你在专业课学习和日常练习中更好地掌握相关技能，逐步提高自己的英语综合能力。
通过本章学习，你将会/能：
1.熟悉听力、阅读、写作、口语等语言技能学习策略；
2.体验和反思听力、阅读、写作、口语等语言技能学习流程；
3.了解语言技能学习思维过程、思维技能和思维工具。
第一节 英语听力技能学习策略与思维技能
一 学前任务
请完成下面关于自己当前听力情况的调查问卷：
1.当前我的听力水平是：
□ 高中英语水平
□ 大学英语三级
□ 大学英语四级
□ 大学英语六级
2.当前在听力中我存在的主要问题是：
□ 语音、语调基础差
□ 单词听不懂，容易卡住
□ 句子结构听不明白
□ 只听细节，听不懂大意
□ 听了后面忘了前面
□ 其他问题
3.我对自己的听力问题有无应对办法：
□ 有
□ 无
4.我的听力风格是：
□ 分析型：自下而上，依赖字面意思，细节问题把握较好，但不充分利用世界知识、经验知识等挖掘文章的深层含义；
□ 整体型：自上而下，使用策略避免直接应对语音、单词、语法等细节，全局型问题处理较好，但对具体信息重视不够；
□ 综合型：综合前两种风格，灵活运用不同学习策略。
5.我知道的听力任务有：
□ 听写（词）
□ 听写（短语）
□ 听写（句子）
□ 听力理解（听选）
□ 听力理解（听辨）
□ 听力理解（听断）
二 新知导入
英语听力过程：
国内专家学者（文秋芳，1996；程晓堂，郑敏，2002；鲁子问，康淑敏，2008；何少庆，2010；宋畅，2017）提出的听力策略包括听前、听中和听后的元认知策略（如明确听力目标、监控听力过程、分配和调整听力关注、反思改进等）和认知策略（激活图式、分析、预测等）。具体步骤如下：
1.明确听力目标
以2018年全国英语专业四级考试听力对话题目为例：
TEST FOR ENGLISH MAJORS (2018)
-GRADE FOUR-
SECTION B CONVERSATIONS
In this section you will hear two conversations.At the end of each conversation,five questions will be asked about what was said.Both the conversations and the questions will be spoken ONCE ONLY.After each question there will be a ten-second pause.During the pause,you should read the four choices of A,B,C and D,and mark the best answer to each question on ANSWER SHEET TWO.
You have THIRTY seconds to preview the choices.
Now,listen to the conversations.
拿到题目后，先看该题的指令部分，明确听力测试要求：本部分由两段对话组成，每段对话后有5个问题，对话和问题只念1遍。听到问题后，考生要在10秒内从每道题的
四个选项中选出最佳答案。听力播放前有30秒可以浏览选项。
Conversation One
Questions 1 to 5 are based on Conversation One.
1.A.Many foreign languages are spoken in Britain.
B.Everyone in Britain can speak a foreign language.
C.The British are unable to speak a foreign language.
D.The British can survive on their mother tongue.
…
Conversation Two
Questions 6 to 10 are based on Conversation Two.
6.A.An unreasonable fear.
B.A dangerous event.
C.A small probability.
D.A risk-assessing ability.
…
接着，通过浏览任务和选项可知：本题为听力理解选择题，测试任务是根据听力内容，选择正确选项回答问题。判断答题难点在于问题没有直接给出，要求在听力播放前根据已知选项推测可能的问题。
2.激活认知图式
认知图式是调用大脑中与听力主题相关的信息，包括修辞、内容、语言等图式。
以对话这一题型为例，首先激活关于对话的修辞图式，即对话的概念和内容结构。对话一般是两人就相关主题进行交谈，交流信息、观点、看法、评论、建议等。结构包含对话目的、参与者、对话话题、对话阶段、话轮转换等。
接着，根据已知题干，勾画带有信息的实词，如名词、动词短语，预测主题。如下所示，根据题干中加粗部分的信息，可以初步推测出本题的主题：学习外语。
Conversation One
1.A.Many foreign languages are spoken in Britain.
B.Everyone in Britain can speak a foreign language.
C.The British are unable to speak a foreign language.
D.The British can survive on their mother tongue.
2.A.Chinese.
B.Polish.
C.Punjabi.
D.Urdu.
3.A.To help improve international trade.
B.To allow a speaker to hold a simple talk.
C.To improve the education system.
D.To encourage learning another language.
…
然后，用气泡图根据主题及其信息词进行内容图式的发散，猜测对话中的主要内容。形成这样的内容图式：英国人学习外语的情况、目的和外语学习的价值（见图1）。
图1 以“学习外语”为话题的气泡图
此外，也可以根据对话场景联想用气泡图绘制内容图式：谁发起了学习外语的对话，对话目的是什么，双方就英国人学习外语的话题谈论了些什么，对话如何结束的（见图2）。
图2 关于对话结构的气泡图
而语言图式是指大脑中已经储备的与该主题相关的语言知识，结合本道题主题，也就是和“learning a foreign language”有关的词语，如pronunciation，grammar，vocabulary，meaning，skills，communication等，以及句式“How many languages can you speak？” “Why do you learn a foreign language？”等。
3.分析和预测
激活认知图式后，就可以结合题目内容分析和预测听力信息。同样以此对话题目为例：
第一题，A、B、C选项都有foreign language，Britain/British，speak/spoken等信息词，分析出这是一个主话题点，而D选项信息词British和mother tongue 为次话题点或干扰项。由此预测这道题是关于英国人讲外语或母语的情况。
第二题，尽管选项C（旁遮普语）和D（乌尔都语）可能是生词，但从第一题英国人讲外语话题，以及A和B选项分析得知，本题选项是4种不同的语言或讲不同语言的人。由此可以预测本题是某种外语在英国的使用情况。
第三题，从选项中的不定式结构以及speaker，another language等信息词分析得知，本题测试有关目的，结合话题即是讲外语的目的。
4.分配听力关注
比如听第一题时要关注其中一个说话人对英国人讲外语的评价，包括讲不讲外语，讲什么外语，讲的程度如何；听第二题时关注说话人对这几种语言持有的观点和态度；而听第三题时应关注谈话人对学外语功用的看法，可能需要从多个功用中找出说话人的最终观点。
5.监控听力过程
在监控听力过程中，要运用元认知听力策略中的集中注意策略，保持注意力集中，排除干扰。比如在听力对话过程中，需要注意话题的引入信息，关注对话要谈论的内容，还需要注意主题信息词、观点态度信息词、对话中的问题等。
由于听力对话通常是一问一答，问题和回答都需要关注，尤其是回答，包含观点信息，更应关注。
以下面这一对话片段为例：
—How many foreign languages can you speak?
—Not that many.A bit of German,some French,Polish a little,Chinese of course,a bit of Japanese.That’s about it.
回答时需要注意哪些点呢？首先，听到“How many foreign languages can you speak？”这个问题，可以预测回答者可能直接回答所掌握语言的数量，因此重点关注数量。然而在听的过程中发现，回答者是按照掌握外语的程度进行描述，因此注意力就要放在具体的语言，以及说话人在这些实词上的语气和重音，而不是“a bit of，some，a little”这些描述性的信息。
6.调动认知策略
调动认知策略，就是运用图式理论中的组块策略，组块包含搭配组块、意群组块和认知组块。以下面这组对话为例，问题是：英国人为什么开展千词行动？相关的对话内容如下：
Question: Why was the 1,000 Words Campaign launched?
—M: No,it’s not compulsory.But recently a campaign was launched to encourage everyone in the UK to learn at least 1,000 words of another language.It hopes to help Britain increase international trade.
—W: 1,000 words?
—M: Yes.It’s called the 1,000 Words Campaign because it says a vocabulary of 1,000 words would allow a speaker to hold a simple conversation.
在这段对话里，有搭配组块，例如“was launched to，at least，hopes to”；还有意群组块，例如“to learn at least 1，000 words of another language”，以及“because it says a vocabulary of 1，000 words”。利用这些搭配和意群组块有助于建立测试问题和信息之间的连接，男士对千词行动进行了阐释，包含该行动的内容和目的。
再来看认知组块，结合问题筛选出听力过程中找到的认知组块，经过分析发现，“to learn at least 1，000 words of another language”是解释英国外语千词行动计划，而“to hold a simple conversation”是学习者个体学习外语的好处，是个体因素，只有“hopes to help Britain increase international trade”才是英国国家实施“外语千词行动”的全局因素。
7.检验预测和调整听力关注
在听力过程中，需要灵活运用集中注意和组块策略来验证预测的准确性。
而如果检验发现预测有偏差，就需要及时调整听力关注。运用自我监控策略，发现并改正错误、完善修正所听内容、及时调整注意力。
8.评价与反思
评价与反思主要包括材料评价和过程反思，过程反思又包含精神心理状况、策略运用、问题原因三个方面。
材料评价，即在完成听力练习后，应该对材料难度进行评价，是较大、一般还是容易？说话人的语速适中、过快还是过慢？对说话人的语音和语调熟悉还是生疏？此外，还要对材料内容的听懂程度作评价，例如，主题是否把握，主要细节是否抓住等。
最后，还要对听力过程进行反思。过程中精力是集中还是散漫，放松还是紧张？因听力内容熟悉度而产生的是兴奋还是忧虑？在听力中运用了哪些元认知听力控制策略，图式理论还是组块策略？是否运用了预测、分析、推断等技巧？最后还要思考本次听力练习暴露出的问题有哪些？产生问题的原因是什么？
9.归纳与改进
在完成听力练习后，可以对听前和听中所使用的策略进行归纳，扩大认知建构。例如，如何在听前预测里运用内容图式，语言图式中涉及到了哪些词汇短语和句型结构等；听中如何集中注意力抓取重点信息，又是如何运用组块策略检验、分析、归纳、纠正预测信息等。
最后是问题改进，即针对整个听力过程中的问题进行改进提高。问题可能有信息记忆不清，预测不准，在关键信息处走神，语言储备不够等。找出问题后，需要思考问题的解决对策，例如，如果问题是语言储备不够，应该通过强化语言输入、提高语言图式能力来改进。而如果是因为说话人语言信息量大导致听中对信息记忆不清和不全，这就需要在今后的听力学习和训练中加强注意力的分配练习，关注主题信息，预测信息，并培养记笔记习惯和技巧。
三 学以致用
1.请浏览下面2018年全国英语专业四级考试听力对话题的五个问题选项，根据相关信息激活内容和语言图式，并在方框中记录。
Conversation Two
6.A.An unreasonable fear.
B.A dangerous event.
C.A small probability.
D.A risk-assessing ability.
7.A.One in one million.
B.One in four million.
C.One in fourteen million.
D.One in forty million.
8.A.Future events.
B.Catastrophic events.
C.Small-scale disasters.
D.Smoking hazards.
9.A.Traveling by air.
B.Riding a bicycle.
C.Catching bird flu.
D.Smoking cigarettes.
10.A.They get pleasure from risks.
B.They can control potential risks.
C.They can assess danger from risks.
D.They have strong needs for risks.
2.请按照听中学习流程和策略，完成习题2，4，5，并在下列方框中记录你是如何使用相关策略的。
2.A.Chinese.
B.Polish.
C.Punjabi.
D.Urdu.
4.A.It gives you self-satisfaction.
B.It makes you more confident.
C.It gives you an advantage.
D.It makes you work hard.
5.A.Workmates.
B.Schoolmates.
C.Teacher and student.
D.Brother and sister.
3.在完成上面第2题的听力练习后，请参考听后学习流程和策略，记录相关反思和改进。
四 理解自查
1.为了让听前内容图式激活更精准、更有效，你做了哪些听前自我管理和训练？
2.听力过程中有哪些组块策略？谈谈你在平时听力训练中是怎样运用相关组块策略的。
3.听力过程中的听前、听中和听后策略和技能中，你认为哪一个环节的策略和技能对你的帮助最大？请举例说明。
五 体验应用
Task 1:
① Watch the beginning part of video That’s Why I Chose Yale;
② Use concept maps to recall ideas and knowledge with schema.
③ Share your prediction in groups.
④ Finish watching the video to verify your prediction.
Task 2: Blank filling
Complete the table below.Write ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.
Task 3: Multiple choices
(1) News reports
Directions: In this section,you will hear three news reports.At the end of each news report,
you will hear two or three questions.Both the news reports and the questions will be spoken
only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices
marked A),B),C) and D).
1.A) A study of the fast-food service.
B) Fast food customer satisfaction.
C) McDonald’s new business strategies.
D) Competition in the fast-food industry.
2.A) Customers’ higher demands.
B) The inefficiency of employees.
C) Increased variety of products.
D) The rising number of customers.
(2) Conversations
Directions: In this section,you will hear two long conversations.At the end of each
conversation,you will hear four questions.Both the conversations and the questions will be
spoken only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four
choices marked A),B),C) and D).
1.A) Visiting her family in Thailand.
B) Showing friends around Phuket.
C) Swimming around a Thai island.
D) Lying in the sun on a Thai beach.
2.A) She visited a Thai orphanage.
B) She met a Thai girl’s parents.
C) She learned some Thai words.
D) She sunbathed on a Thai beach.
3.A) His class will start in a minute.
B) He has got an incoming phone call.
C) Someone is knocking at his door.
D) His phone is running out of power.
六 反思提升
请结合本节内容的学习、实践与思考，完成下表。
第二节 英语阅读技能学习策略与思维技能
一 学前任务
1.阅读习惯定位
以下描述是否与你的阅读习惯相符，如是，请在相应题号前打勾。
（1）从题目开始，一字一字地读，每个单词都要读
（2）从题目开始，一行一行地读，不认识的词句直接跳过
（3）每段都只读第一句和最后一句，确实需要的信息才到段中寻找
（4）阅读速度快，能够一目多行
（5）阅读速度慢，总在纠结细节
（6）会根据文章体裁猜测文章结构等
（7）会根据文章题目猜测文章内容等
（8）能够理解文章主旨
（9）能够明白作者意图
（10）阅读中总是在试图翻译句子和单词
（11）擅长做细节题，能够快速找到关键信息
（12）能够找到细节，但是无法概括文章主旨
2.阅读习惯分析
请根据以往的学习经验，分析你在阅读时有哪些好习惯、坏习惯以及存在的阅读困难，并完成以下树形图：
二 新知导入
英语阅读习惯：
每个学习者都有自己特定的阅读习惯，也可以称为阅读风格。一般而言，采用自下而上模式（Bottom-up）的学习者倾向于将注意力集中在字词的细节或者句子的语法结构上；采用自上而下模式（Top-down）的学习者则相反，倾向于关注文章的整体结构和篇章大意；而最后一种使用相互作用模式（Interactive）的学习者则是前两种的结合，同时运用以上两种方式进行阅读（程晓堂，郑敏，2002）。
英语阅读过程：
通过总结过往学者在阅读学习策略方面给出的建议（文秋芳，1996；程晓堂，郑敏，2002；鲁子问，康淑敏，2008；何少庆，2010；顾永琦，2011），可知常见的阅读过程策略包括读前、读中和读后的元认知和认知策略。读前活动主要包括激活图式和预测内容；读中活动主要围绕阅读文本进行，通过略读、寻读、推断等对文本进行理解和赏析；读后活动主要是引发读者结合自己知识和经历，对文本主题和内容进行深度思考、评价以及批判等。具体如下：
1.激活图式
图式理论认为，文本理解是读者背景知识和文本内容之间互动的过程。有效的阅读需要读者具备将文本材料与自身知识相关联的能力。（Carrell，1984）那么，在阅读之前调取图式，有助于在阅读文章时更好地理解文章内容。
读前环节可以激活的图式主要有两种：内容图式和修辞图式。
内容图式是关于文章内容的知识，比如通过标题可以较快地判断是否熟悉这篇文章所讨论的主题。而修辞图式是关于这篇文章的体裁，包括常见文体对应的结构和形式，比如阅读记叙文时需要关注故事的主人公、情节发展，而如果是议论文就要留心辨别文章中的不同观点。
2.预测内容
预测内容和激活图式息息相关，很多时候这两个环节是同时进行的。有标题时可以通过标题，没有标题时可以通过标题或段落首句来预测文本的主要内容。如果文章配有图片或图表，也能在预测时起到作用。与此同时，还可以通过标题、首句等中的关键词，来预测文本结构和可能存在的作者态度。
案例：
There are three reasons why some students cannot finish their college studies.Some students fail in college because their academic background is weak.For example,one student might not have had an adequate mathematics course in high school,so he fails his university math class.Another student may not attend classes regularly; as a result,he may not be able to pass the tests in class since he does not know the answers.Next,because of financial problems,other students may fail university classes.For example,students who have to take jobs don’t have as much time to study; consequently,they may fail their classes.Others may give up their college study because they cannot stand the strain of working and studying at the same time.Finally,there are students who fail because their energies are not directed toward their classes.Some of these students are not interested in college,so they spend their days doing other things.Some other students,though enjoying college life,are distracted by other activities,parties,movies,sports,etc.So they do not study enough,therefore,they fail.Because of all these problems,numerous students fail in college every year.
阅读上面这段文章节选，首先，迅速浏览首句“There are three reasons why some students cannot finish their college studies.”来激活图式。抓住关键词college studies，很容易结合个人经历产生联想：完成大学学业需要修满足够的学分，或者这些学分是由必修课、选修课等不同类型的课程组成；获得任何一门课的学分主要包含上课、参加课程活动、通过课程考试等环节。
接着，关注句子里的“...reasons why...”，既然是讨论原因，那么这段话的文体应该不会是叙事或描写，而应该是议论或者说明，最有可能的是一篇说明文里按照因果关系展开的段落。
在回想所知的有关college studies的内容时，对文章的内容进行了同步预测：比如这段话可能也会讲完成学习需要修满学分、大学的课程类型等；这段话要分析部分大学生不能完成学业的原因，那原因可能是哪些？相对客观的原因可能是所学专业难度大、门槛高、严进严出；主观的原因可能是专业和个人兴趣不匹配、课程太难，或者是个人把重心放到了学业之外的社团活动上等。
在激活图式时，还可以通过“...reasons why...”句型，回想所读文章如何按照因果关系展开段落，并进一步预测这个段落的结构。既然有三个原因，那在展开段落时应该就会分点叙述原因，并可能用到first，second，next，finally等连接词。
3.略读（Skimming）
略读关注的是文章的大意或中心思想，而不是细节。略读时，首先浏览文章的大标题、小标题，关注以加粗、划线等方式强调的部分，从而迅速判断文章的主要内容。
除此之外，略读时还应注重文章的第一段和最后一段，以及各段的第一句和最后一句。因为首段通常是引出话题或对全篇的概括，尾段往往是总结。在段落中同理，首句通常是主题句，末句通常是结论句。略读时抓住上述部分，可以在短时间内掌握文章的主要内容或论点，对整体的线索和脉络建立初步印象。
4.寻读（Scanning）
寻读和略读相伴出现，但目的和略读相反，不是关注文章大意和整体脉络，而是为了寻找特定细节。在寻读的过程中，根据题目信息到原文中准确定位非常关键。寻读可以建立在扫读的基础上，在对文章大意和结构有了初步了解后，根据题目要求回到文中搜寻对应的时间、地点、人物、方式、因果等具体信息。
5.推断（Making an Inference）
推断在阅读的过程中也非常重要。推断既可以是结合上下文推测生词的意思（Guess meanings of new words from the context），也可以是结合上下文和篇章逻辑，推测句子的内容（Read between the lines）。
在推测生词意思时，可以采用以下方法：（1）根据定义线索猜测词义，比如文章中出现的which means，in other words，be known as，namely等标志性短语；（2）利用同/近义词和反义词猜测词义，比如在陌生的单词附近可能会有类似的表达和重述，而在表示转折的连接词或短语如although，but，however，instead，on the contrary，on the other hand，in contrast等后面，就可能出现和前面表述相反的词汇。
在推测句意时，则需要比推测词义更进一步的分析和思考。推测句意要求的是read between the lines，“to find meanings that are intended but that are not directly expressed in something said or written”（Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary）。 在阅读中根据上下文推测出作者未直接言明的意图。
6.过程监控
在整个阅读过程中，还需要运用元认知策略中的过程监控策略，一边阅读一边思考。比如，在读前进行了预测，那么在读中可以根据所读修订之前的预测；过程中根据阅读目的和阅读重点调整注意力和专注度；根据阅读时间和阅读量调整自己的阅读速度；及时检查所用的阅读方法是否恰当，比如是否采用了寻读的方法来回答事实细节题；以及在回答推理判断题时，是否从文中找到了有用的线索作为依据，并通过分析、综合等进行逻辑推理得出结论，避免主观臆断。
案例：
请看下面这篇文章选段（选自2018年六级考试真题）：
Peer Pressure Has a Positive Side
A) Parents of teenagers often view their children’s friends with something like suspicion.They worry that the adolescent peer group has the power to push its members into behavior that is foolish and even dangerous.Such wariness is well founded: statistics show,for example,that a teenage driver with a same-age passenger in the car is at higher risk of a fatal crash than an adolescent driving alone or with an adult.
B) In a 2005 study,psychologist Laurence Steinberg of Temple University and his coauthor,psychologist Margo Gardner,then at Temple,divided 306 people into three age groups: young adolescents,with a mean age of 14; older adolescents,with a mean age of 19;and adults,aged 24 and older.Subjects played a computerized driving game in which the player must avoid crashing into a wall that materializes,without warning,on the roadway.Steinberg and Gardner randomly assigned some participants to play lone or with two sameage peers looking on.
C) Older adolescents scored about 50 percent higher on an index of risky driving when their peers were in the room—and the driving of early adolescents was fully twice as reckless when other young teens were around.In contrast,adults behaved in similar ways regardless of whether they were on their own or observed by others.“The presence of peers makes adolescents and youth,but not adults,more likely to take risks,” Steinberg and Gardner concluded.
D) Yet in the years following the publication of this study,Steinberg began to believe that this interpretation did not capture the whole picture.As he and other researchers examined the question of why teens were more apt to take risks in the company of other teenagers,they came to suspect that a crowd’s influence need not always be negative.Now some experts are proposing that we should take advantage of the teen brain’s keen sensitivity to the presence of friends and leverage it to improve education.
E） In a 2011 study，Steinberg and his colleagues turned to functional MRI （磁共振） to investigate how the presence of peers affects the activity in the adolescent brain.They scanned the brains of 40 teens and adults who were playing a virtual driving game designed to test whether players would brake at a yellow light or speed on through the crossroad.
拿到材料后，首先略读这篇选段，通过标题“Peer Pressure Has a Positive Side”不难判断，这篇文章的主要内容是同辈压力，强调同辈压力的积极面，也会提及同辈压力的消极面。同时，A段主题句“Parents of teenagers often view their children’s friends with something like suspicion”为peer pressure的negative side定调，而D段主题句“Yet in the years following the publication of this study，Steinberg began to believe that this interpretation did not capture the whole picture.”笔锋一转，指出也许关于negative side的印象不够全面，D段结论句“Now some experts are proposing that we should take advantage of the teen brain’s keen sensitivity to the presence of friends and leverage it to improve education.”点明了本篇的重点是探讨是否可以利用peer pressure产生积极影响。
接下来，通过寻读定位重点信息，进行细节阅读时，可能会遇到生词。遇到生词时不要着急，要留心和关联上下文的线索，大胆进行词义猜测。比如A段中的这句话“Such wariness is well founded： statistics show，for example，that a teenage driver with a same-age passenger in the car is at higher risk of a fatal crash than an adolescent driving alone or with an adult.”其中的wariness也许不熟悉，但是放在语境中，后面有冒号解释，给出具体的wariness情景；而wariness前面的单词such，说明前文中也有和wariness相对应的表述，这样结合来看，不难得出前一句话“They worry that the adolescent peer group has the power to push its members into behavior that is foolish and even dangerous.”其实就是wariness的内容，它的意思和worry作名词时相近。
7.评价与反思
要提升阅读质量，评价与反思必不可少，主要可以从两个方面进行评估：自己设定的阅读目标是否已经实现；文章在内容和难度上是否满足自己的阅读目标或要求。
将内容和所设定的目标相结合进行评价是因为在之前的学习中，了解到了图式的重要性，那么在平时的练习中，可以有意识地拓展阅读话题的多样性，扩充自己的图式储备。而从难度上进行评价，参考Krashen（1989）的输入假说（Input Hypothesis），所选择的材料应该在难度上略高于现有水平，保持足够的可理解的语言输入，才能有效提高语言能力。如果你发现所选择的阅读材料非常简单，或者过于困难，都是不合适的材料。需要寻找同话题的阅读材料，丰富对该话题的背景知识的同时，强化对相关内容和语言表达的印象。
8.总结与改进
读完文章后，还可以就评价与反思的内容进行归纳，并思考如何在下一次阅读练习中加以改进。比如可以总结本次阅读收获、自己的表现、为解决问题采用了哪些恰当的阅读策略等，并思考如何将用过的阅读策略迁移到新的阅读任务中，或者在阅读后找出自己的弱点并考虑改进措施，制订后续阅读练习的目标。
三 学以致用
1.请运用读前策略与技能，思考并说明在完整阅读下面这篇文本之前，可以做些什么。请填写在下列方框中。
Human intervention in a natural environment,perhaps only slight and with good intentions may result in unwanted effects.A good example of this occurred in the Antilles in the 1870s.Sugarcane was a major crop there,but rats were eating the cane and nesting in the cane fields,causing a great deal of damage.In order to kill rats,several male and female mongooses,excellent rat hunters,were imported in 1872.In the next ten years,the mongooses flourished and the rat population was significantly reduced.But as the rat population decreased,mongooses began to eat the native birds,snakes,lizards,and turtles.As a result,the birds,snakes,lizards disappeared,and the insect population began to increase.With no natural predators to keep them in check,the insects began to do more and more damage to the cane fields.Mongooses imported to save cane fields ended up as the cause of a new problem.
2.请运用读中策略与技能，完成读中微课导学视频中要求的阅读练习（见附录1），并把所用到的策略和具体例子记录在下方，可以使用文字、图画、思维工具等多种形式进行记录。
四 理解自查
1.如何在读前有效地激活图式？
2.如何在阅读过程中灵活运用略读和寻读技能？
3.在阅读的读前、读中和读后策略与技能中，哪一个环节的策略和技能对你帮助最大？哪一个环节你做得还不太好？打算之后如何改进呢？请举例说明。
五 体验应用
Demonstration
Materials:
Whatever Happened to Manners？ （from Unit 2 An Integrated English Course 1）（见附录2）
1.Pre-reading: schema & predict
2.While-reading: comprehension
1) Decide which of the following best states the author’s purpose of writing.________
A.To explicate the significance of having good manners.
B.To show how to behave more nicely,gently and softly.
C.To exhibit the fact that Americans are getting lazier.
D.To tell the readers a sort of hidden beauty secret.
2) Judge,according to the text,whether the following statements are true or false.
A.The author does not think that a simple “Thank you” really matters.
B.The author thought that the thank-you note she had received from a party guest was lovely because it included a recipe for a dish she liked very much.
C.That we don’t have the time or energy is only an excuse for not writing thank-you notes.
D.A hotel bellman would appreciate a little gesture that makes his life a little bit easier.
E.Spouses should be serious about the routine things they expect each other to do.
3) Answer the following questions.
A.What examples does the author cite in the first paragraph to support her idea that people are not behaving as politely as they used to?
B.What could a gracious manner probably bring about according to the author?
C.What made the author feel all the more appreciative of a thank-you note from a guest who attended Frank’s daughter-in-law’s birthday party?
D.What phrase does the author think is just as powerful as a thank-you note?
E.Why is it so important to use good manners with our own families?
F.What wish does the author express at the end of the text?
3.Post-reading: reflection
Practice (Group Work)
Materials:
Five Traits of the Educated Man （from Unit 10 An Integrated English Course 1） （见附录3）
1.Pre-reading: schema & predict
2.While-reading: comprehension
1) Decide which of the following best states the author’s purpose of writing.________
A.To explain that a reasonable amount of learning must accompany an education.
B.To display the major traits of an educated man.
C.To argue that an educated gentleman must speak his mother tongue precisely.
D.To show that an educated man must keep refined and gentle manners.
2) Judge,according to the text,whether the following statements are true or false.
A.A great amount of learning in any one field is very important for an educated man.
B.It is implied in the second paragraph that schools and colleges are not very successful in enabling their students to use good,standard English.
C.Good manners are not artificial and forced; rather they are natural expressions of one’s habits of thought and action.
D.The fourth trait of an educated man,the power of growth,refers to his determination to develop continuously from birth till death.
E.People can all be well educated regardless of their occupation
3) Answer the following questions.
A.How,according to the author,are the characteristics of an educated man acquired?
B.What are the major qualities of good spoken English?
C.How does the author compare good manners with bad manners?
D.What role does adult education play in present-day society?
E.Why doesn’t the author regard a visionary dreamer to be a well-educated man?
3.Post-reading: reflection
六 反思提升
请结合本节内容的学习、实践与思考，完成下表。
第三节 英语写作技能学习策略与思维技能
一 学前任务
1.写作习惯定位
下面关于写作习惯的描述是否与你的实际情况相符合，如是，请在符合的题号上打勾。
（1）我有明确的英语写作学习目标。
（2）我会制订英语写作学习计划。
（3）我会先写出要点再动笔写。
（4）我会注意写作的整体布局和层次安排。
（5）我会检查我的写作内容，比如是否有语法错误、拼写错误。
（6）我重视写作内容的逻辑性和连贯性。
（7）我会在写完一遍后修改。
（8）我注意了解自己在英语写作中的进步与不足。
（9）我积极探索适合自己的英语写作方法。
（10）我会与老师和同学交流英语写作体会。
（11）我尽量通过多种渠道学习英语写作。
（12）我会评价自己写作的效果，总结学习方法。
*本调查问卷部分参考《元认知策略与大学英语写作》中所用调查表（杜爱红，2004）
2.写作习惯分析
请根据以往的学习经验，分析你在写作时有哪些好习惯、坏习惯以及存在的写作困难，并完成如下树形图。
二 新知导入
英语写作过程：
国内学者（文秋芳，1996；程晓堂，郑敏，2002；鲁子问，康淑敏，2008；丁往道等，2010；何少庆，2010；顾永琦，2011）提出，写作过程策略包括写前、写中和写后的元认知策略（如确定目的、监控策略、检查与修改、反思与改进等）和认知策略（构思内容、整理思路、分析与评价等）。
具体步骤建议如下：
1.构思内容
在拿到一个写作的话题时，首先根据这个话题来做“头脑风暴”，并借助思维导图（Mind Map）这一思维工具进行发散思考，激活图式，把有关该话题能想到的所有内容记录下来，便于之后选择和整理。如下图，从位于中心的关键词开始，一层层向外发散，以中心词——分论点——各个小点这样的形式进行梳理。
案例：
图3 以Internet为话题进行头脑风暴
*部分参考《英语学习策略：从理论到实践》（程晓堂，郑敏，2002：128）
2.确定目的
确定目的，也就是写作前需要确定这篇文章的写作目的。例如，提供信息（to inform）、作出解释（to explain）、捍卫某种观点（defend a view）、反驳某种观点（argue against an opinion） 或讲述一个故事（tell a story）。从一开始就明确写作目标，对于有效的书面交流至关重要，因为这关系到后面的一系列环节，包括确定预期读者，筛选必要信息，以及思考如何呈现内容等。
在确定写作目的同时，也就一并确定了文章的体裁。比如要讲故事，那么就要想到记叙文（Narration）的相关要素；如果是要以议论的方式通过摆事实、讲道理来阐述自己的观点，那么就要参照议论文（Argumentation）的写作方式；常见的文体还包括描写文（Description）和说明文（Exposition）。另外，如果写作的目的是为了工作沟通、日常交流，那么就要考虑采用常见的应用文体，如信件（Letters）、通知（Notices）、报告（Reports）等。
3.搜集资料
如果不是在考试过程中，而是在日常学习、生活中进行写作练习，那么就可以在写前搜集资料。通过激活图式来对给定话题进行头脑风暴，把能够想到的内容都先列出来，那么，搜集资料这一步就是为了补全自己不知道的，不在图式储备里，而又对于写作必不可少的内容。
案例：
如果要写作的内容是某一特定领域内的话题，可以在关于该话题的官方网站内进行搜索。比如：写作内容关于可持续发展目标（Sustainable Development Goals），想要深入了解每个目标的内容及相关进程，就可以在联合国的官方网站上找到专门的内容。
如果话题没有官方网站，或者不确定，可以直接利用搜索引擎查找相关资料。使用搜索引擎时需要注意，如果输入的词过于宽泛，就很难找到适合的材料，需要进一步缩小范围来获得更加准确的内容。
例如：写作内容和教育相关，输入“education”得到的结果会非常多，很难找到最需要的内容，那么这个时候需要进一步定义关键词并缩小范围（further define and narrow your topic），那么搜索词就可能会是“农村教育”（rural education），同时还可以更加具体（be as specific as you can），搜索“重庆地区的小学农村教育”（rural primary schools in Chongqing），这样搜索到的内容就会更加聚焦。
同样，随着移动通信的发展，手机应用（Applications）覆盖了生活中的不同主题，可以通过搜索手机应用商店中的软件来搜集某一领域的信息。比如：在应用商店搜索栏输入“news”，就能找到CNN、The Economist、BBC News、CHINA DAILY等应用软件，从而查看各类新闻。在下载应用后，在应用中同样可以输入关键词进行细化搜索。
此外，如果需要深入研究要写作的内容，还可以借助学校的图书馆资源搜索相关领域的著作，或者通过中国知网、百度学术等网站搜索专业论文。
搜索完毕后，如果打算使用搜索到的内容，还可以问问自己下面这些问题（University of Toronto，2020），比如搜索到的资料是否可靠和准确？（Is the material on the Web site reliable and accurate？）是客观事实还是个人观点？（Is the information factual，not opinion？）如果是观点，作者的观点是否公正客观？（Is the author’s point of view impartial and objective？）尽量让自己的参考资料权威、客观、有效。
4.整理思路
提笔之前，最后还可以借助思维工具来帮助整理思路，撰写提纲（Outline）。
在撰写提纲时，需要考虑写作目的，并结合前面所学的思维可视化工具来梳理写作思路。写作目的可能是to describe，to define，to explain，to classify，to list，to sequence，to compare and contrast，to analyze，to evaluate等，这些目的都可以通过八大思维图示或者思维导图来呈现。
案例：
如果写作题目是对比城市生活和农村生活的异同，那么可以借助双气泡图来列出提纲，把进行比较的主要方面和关键词确定下来，写作时一一呈现比较的内容即可（见图4）。
图4 对比城市生活和农村生活异同的双气泡图
如果写作题目是描述一道家常菜的做法，那么可以先确定自己要写的那道菜，再通过流程图的方式简单地把菜谱记录下来，写作的时候就可以按照制作顺序写，再加上连接词进行过渡（见图5）。
图5 “如何做一道菜”的流程图
如果要进行议论文写作，而内容在逻辑关系上比较复杂，也可以使用这样的提纲模板（Outline template），将文章大致分为Introduction、Body、Conclusion三个部分，在Introduction部分表明全文的中心论点（Thesis Statement），在Body部分展现构思好的主要分论点（Supporting Ideas），然后在Conclusion部分进行全文总结并重申观点（见图6）。
图6 议论文写作提纲示例
5.监控策略
如果要从整体上把握写作过程，还需要在写作过程中有意识地运用元认知策略中的监控策略，即关注自己采取的写作方法、写作进程、写作效果以及计划执行情况等活动。比如，在写作过程中思考所写内容是否围绕主题，检查每个段落是否有主题句，段落内容是否围绕主题句而写；在写作过程中及时调整使用的词汇和短语，关注标点符号使用情况，并根据时间调整自己的写作速度。这些都是在写作过程中使用的监控策略。
此外，在写作过程中也需要运用语言知识监控写作质量。常见对于语言表达质量的评价基于：词汇多样性、词汇准确性、句式多样性、语篇衔接四个方面。
（1）词汇多样性
在写作过程中应该关注词汇的多样性（lexical diversity），也就是尽量使用丰富多样的词汇来表达同样的事物或概念。词汇的多样性有助于丰富写作内容、展示写作能力，而且多种英语水平测试，如四六级、雅思、托福考试，在写作部分的评分标准中都明确了这项评价要求。
首先，减少重复使用相同的单词。比如在写作中想要表达“增长”这个动作，除了使用grow，还可以使用raise，increase或者burgeon。要形容某位演员“全球闻名”，除了说“He is an actor who is famous globally”，还可以用worldwide / internationally / universally来代替“globally”。
除了避免词汇重复，还应该避免使用大量范文推荐的表达，比如“every coin has two sides，broaden my horizon，with the development of...，more and more”等，这些已经被大量学生频繁使用的表达最好避免。
此外，要体现词汇的多样性，还可以通过学习与主题相关的词汇来实现，因为写作往往会围绕一些常见的话题。平时多积累不同领域和行业相关的基本词汇，有助于在写作时灵活使用与所写话题相关联的词汇。比如：写医疗相关的话题，那么cure，heal，prescription，disease这些基本词汇应当要出现；写大学生就业相关的话题，那么highly skilled jobs，qualified graduates，job requirements，internship experience，unemployment problems等词汇就可以使用到。
（2）词汇准确性
注意词汇的准确性，就是需要注意英语词汇和中文词汇无法对应部分的转化和表达。比如同样是“做”，“做作业”是do your homework，但是“做决定”是make a decision。平时训练写作时不应该是练习翻译中文，而是注重培养英语思维、多积累惯用表达。
（3）句式多样性
要实现句式的多样性，首先需要知道句子的不同类型。从句子的结构来划分，可以分为简单句（simple sentence）、复合句（compound sentence）、复杂句（complex sentence）和复合复杂句（compound-complex sentence）四种类型。
简单句的特点是只有一个主语和一个谓语动词；复合句则是由像and，but，or这样的并列连词（coordinating conjunction）把两个或多个独立分句（independent clauses），也就是像简单句一样的完整句子连接起来；而复杂句，就包含了主句（main clause）和从句（dependent clause）两部分，从句作为句子成分，不能独立存在，由从属连词（subordinating conjunction）引导；至于复合复杂句，顾名思义，就是复合句和复杂句的结合。
（4）语篇衔接
除了词汇和语法方面，在语篇层面，还应该注意语篇的衔接（Cohesion &Coherence）。因为重视语篇衔接可以让文章在结构上条理清晰、节奏连贯，而体现段落中句子顺序及思路安排的逻辑性，是好文章的要求之一。语篇衔接的策略包括使用平行结构，保持一致（名词和代词的人称和数量、动词时态），使用过渡词，使用代词，重复关键词等。
常见的过渡词如下：
giving examples for example,for instance,specifically,in particular,namely,another,other,in addition,to illustrate
comparison similarly,not only...but also,in comparison
contrast although,but,while,in contrast,however,though,on the otherhand,nevertheless
sequence first ...second ...third,f inally,moreover,also,in addition,next,then,after,furthermore,and,previously
results therefore,thus,consequently,as a result
*参考Steps to Writing Well （Wyrick，2011： 71）
6.检查与修改
写作完成后，应对文章进行检查与修改，可以分别从内容（content）、结构（organization）和语言（language）三个方面来设计自己的检查清单（checklist），每次写完后对照清单检查自己本次写作是否达到各项要求，再针对没有达标的条目进行修改。也可以根据个人情况适当地增减和修订清单中的项目。这里提供一个参考：
Checklist
Content:
●Have I achieved my goals in writing?
●Does my content match my goals?
●Have I included all the major points necessary to the subject?
●Is each major point in my essay well developed with enough detailed supporting evidence?
Organization:
●Do I organize my essay well?
●Is there a clear relationship between my thesis and each of the major points?
●Are my major points ordered in a logical,easy-tofollow pattern?
●Is there a smooth f low between paragraphs? Within paragraphs?
Language:
●Are all my words and their connotations accurate and appropriate?
●Are all my sentences clear,concise,and coherent?
●Is my tone reasonable,honest,and consistent?
●Have I made any error in grammar,punctuation,spelling,or typing?
*参考Steps to Writing Well （Wyrick，2011： 103-111）
在修改文章时，同样需要根据对语言表达质量的再次评估，即之前提到的词汇多样性、词汇准确性、句式多样性、语篇衔接四个方面，进行相应的修改。除了自行修改以外，还可以寻找同伴、教师进行反馈，以及借助线上写作工具辅助学习。例如，要修改语法，可以将文章提交到批改网、Grammarly、Hemingway Editor等进行自动批改；要检查词语搭配是否得当，可以使用《牛津英语搭配词典》（Oxford Collocations Dictionary）以及Linggle语言搜索引擎进行搜索和修改；要替换表达，Thesaurus.com中提供了近义词和反义词的备选词汇及讲解。总之，充分利用多种学习资源，形成工具和策略意识，是提升写作能力的重要手段。
7.反思与改进
在写后环节，需要认真反思与改进，即回顾本次写作过程，总结在检查与修改过程中发现的问题并进行反思，思考如何在之后的写作中加以改进。比如，总结自己在写作中的薄弱部分，制定改进措施，后续有针对性地练习，或者总结自己的表现、参考范文以归纳不同文体的写作要点，并思考如何将所用策略迁移到新的写作任务中。
三 学以致用
1.运用写前策略与技能，完成以“travel”为题的写前准备，并记录在下列方框中。可以使用文字、图画、思维工具等多种形式进行辅助说明。
2.运用写中策略与技能，完成以下任务：
（1）根据要求完成段落写作。
（2）把所用到的策略和具体例子记录在下方，可以使用文字、图画、思维工具等多种形式进行记录。
For this part,you are allowed 15 minutes to write a paragraph about how to best handle the relationship between parents and children.
四 理解自查
1.如何有效地整理写前思路？
2.在写中环节你觉得最难的地方是什么？有没有找到提升的办法？如找到，是什么方法？如没有找到，准备接下来如何去找到？
3.在写作的写前、写中和写后策略与技能中，你认为哪一个环节的策略和技能对你帮助最大？哪一个环节你做得还不太好？打算之后如何改进呢？请举例说明。
五 体验应用
Pre-writing:
根据以下提示，如果你要以“名字（Name）”为题写一篇文章，你会做哪些写前准备？请用文字或图示在下方列出你的提纲。
●Idea preparation: How much do you know about “name”?
●Goal setting: If you’re going to write about “name”,what title would you like to work on?What genre does your proposed writing belong to?
●Information collection: What information beyond schema have you got for the proposed writing?
●Thoughts organization: What skills may help you to organize all the needed information?Which thinking map(s) might help visualize your thinking?
While-writing:
请根据以下要求完成写作：
Write a 120-word essay around the topic “name” and follow the outline you make in the pre-writing stage.Pay attention to lexical diversity,lexical accuracy,syntactic diversity as well as cohesion and coherence in your writing.
Post-writing:
检查与修改所写内容，并将你根据自己情况设计修订的“Checklist”填入下方；同时，请思考在之后的写作中可以改进的方向，并写在下列方框中。
六 反思提升
请结合本节内容的学习、实践与思考，完成下表。
第四节 英语口语技能学习策略与思维技能
一 学前任务
1.请听下面四条关于听力与口语关系的表述，选出你最赞同的表述并思考原因。
（1）When you are younger and learning to talk,you listen to what other people say.
年幼学语时，先要听人说话。
（2）When oral communication occurs,the speaker needs to go through 3 stages to process information:input (listening),center processing (brain processing) and output (speaking).
口语交际时，说话人对信息处理有三个阶段：输入（听）、中心处理（大脑加工）、输出（说）。
（3）You should listen to authentic texts to improve your speaking skills.
听真实语料可以改善口语表达。
（4）Speaking and listening cannot exist without each other and if you want to be listened to you must f irst listen to others and speak up so that others hear and listen to you.
说话和聆听不可分割，如果想别人听你说，你得先听别人说，然后你再说，这样别人才会认真听你的话。
2.口语习惯定位
请根据以往的学习经历，分析你在进行口语表达时有哪些好习惯、坏习惯以及存在的口语表达困难，并完成下列树形图。
二 新知导入
国内学者（文秋芳，1996；程晓堂，郑敏，2002；鲁子问，康淑敏，2008；何少庆，2010）提出，常见的口语表达过程策略包括说前、说中和说后的元认知策略、认知策略、交际策略等。
具体步骤建议如下：
1.明确交谈目的任务
以下面这道口语题为例：
You have applied for a position of Administrative Assistant of an international trade corporation.Next week,you are going to be interviewed by Ms.Allison,CEO of the company.
这道口语题考查的目的任务非常明确，你要参加一个工作面试。目的是让对方进一步了解自己，相信自己符合公司招聘职位要求，给聘方留下良好印象，最终成功受聘。因此在对话开始前要做好内容与语言方面的充分准备，才能有的放矢。
2.主题及语言可视化
为了保证交流顺利，口语表达言之有物，明确目的任务后，可以运用思维工具将话题和语言可视化，搭建语言输出逻辑框架，完成交际任务。
比如，以工作面试话题为例，我们用圆圈图（Circle Map），对话题概念进行界定和联想（见图7）。
图7 以“工作面试”为话题的圆圈图
中间圆圈代表概念job interview，外圈是对概念的定义、解释和说明，工作面谈是a formal discussion or meeting，在employer和job applicant之间进行。对话过程是雇主ask questions，求职者give answers。通过这个面试，雇主f ind suitable employees，求职者learn more about the position并impress the employer。
其次，还可以运用思维导图（Mind Map）对话题进一步描述和理解，如下图：
图8 以“工作面试”为话题的思维导图
图中，第一层包含：education，language，entry reason，work experience，strength，weakness等子话题；第二层包含子话题下更多的细节内容，例如个人优势（trustworthiness，creativity）以及不足（being too critical of yourself）等。
理清了面谈话题，还可运用括号图（Brace Map）来进行整体和部分可视化，拆分面试中可能涉及的语言，如下图：
图9 关于面试话题所用语言表达的括号图
图中可见，英语面试语言要包含发音（Pronunciation）、词汇（Words）、句子（Sentences）三个部分。发音方面，要考虑语言表达的流利度，语速合适，语调正确自然。词汇方面，由于应聘岗位属于部门领导岗位，所以应聘者要在面试中展示自己是如何领导团队和项目的，并展示取得的成效，所以可能用到领导力方面的词汇，如leadership，coordinate等，以及其他相关行业术语。句子结构方面，工作面谈中有大量的问答，要准备好聘方问题和如何作答。比如，当问到“Why do you want to leave your current job？”回答可能是“I would love to take on some more responsibility.”等。
3.演练和修正对话
完成主题和语言可视化后，就需要模拟真实交际状态，利用可视化思维促进语言输出，然后修正可视化的语言，实现语言交流的最优化。
例如，若考官问道“What’s your greatest strength？”回答可以是基于主题可视化中的词语“trustworthiness”，初步想到的回答可能如下：
A possible answer: You know,I am easy going and reliable.I always do work on time.
但这样的表达可能是多数应聘者会想到和谈到的，不够脱颖而出。同时，内容过于单薄，没有对trustworthiness给出更为具体的论证。所以要修正可视化的语言，让其更具个性特征。修正过程同样可以运用思维导图等工具对关键词进行发散，补充具体的例子（e.g.，trustworthiness reflected in accomplishing assigned work）。进一步完善和修正该回答如下：
A revised answer: My greatest strength is trustworthiness.Whenever reviewing tasks or encountering challenges from work,I do not run away from my responsibilities.I will endeavor to accomplish them and seek better solutions.For example,once one of my colleagues suddenly got sick and I voluntarily undertook her work for we need to finish the business plan in time.
4.输入理解
为准确理解对话者的话语含义，在表达自己的同时要运用注意力策略，抓住对方话语中的关键信息，从而快速反应对方表达的目的和主要内容。同时，为增强输入理解，听时注意力还应集中到话语中的组块，要利用组块策略快速找出关键组块来理解说话人的意思。
以下面这句话为例：
Interviewer: Well,as you know,the company has been expanding and we have an opening in our HR department.We’re creating a new role for someone to lead our training and development within the company.
听的时候，注意力要集中到招聘者说的话题词，即the company，HR，department，new role等，这些词说明聘方在介绍公司和招聘岗位情况。另外，话语中的组块也不能忽视，要找到has been expanding，have an opening等组块来进一步理解说话人的意思。
5.调取图式
理解同时要快速调取图式，进行信息可视化处理。要基于说前准备的图式，快速筛选和匹配。同样以上面这句话为例，提取内容图式，就是要匹配你对应聘岗位的认识和态度。提取语言图式，就是要匹配你对岗位的了解或为申请该职位准备的心理和知识技能方面的语言表达。除了调取说前图式，还可进行即兴补充图式提取，但要遵循相关性、具体化、适量的原则。
6.交际策略和输出语言
为保证口语交流更顺畅，通常可以采用一些交际策略来帮助语言输出。常用的交际策略有：近似表达、适当停顿、体态语。
近似表达是指在输出语言时可以运用相近或同义的表达，比如在工作面试的话题中，应聘者可以用“two people working for me who didn’t get along at all，had no shared values”等表达描述聘方提出的a particularly difficult management。
适当停顿是指交流中需要有恰当的停顿。比如在使用表示转折的连接词“but”前可以适当停顿，或者在展开描述某一具体内容前稍作停顿，给自己提取图式和信息加工留出时间。
体态语包括手势语和面部表情，在交流过程中也很有帮助。手势的运用可以增强语言的交际功能和表达含义；而在交际中始终保持微笑，可以传递积极、自信、合作、担当的语言信号，有助于语言流利、顺畅地输出。
另外，在语言输出的过程中，除了要保持从容自信的交流状态，语言表达有少许错误是可以理解的，用词不够准确或者少量语法错误都要自我包容，不要放弃或者重复表达。
7.回忆与反思
回忆是指针对对话全过程进行回放，可用流程图来还原对话情景，让对话过程可视化，提高会话认知，丰富大脑中的图式。回忆会话进程后，还需反思会话中语言输出的效果。可用思维导图来可视化会话中的语言，反思语言表达是否符合交际需要，是否实现了交际目标。
例如，下面这段对话发生后，可以从应聘者角度反思其语言交流过程，并用思维导图呈现语言表述的积极和不足两方面。
Justine: Come in,Bob.I’m Justine Asker,the manager.You can call me,Justine.
Bob: Pleased to meet you.
Justine: Sit down.Firstly,Bob,can I ask which job you are applying for?
Bob: I’m applying for the receptionist position.
Justine: I see that you have a Diploma in Hospitality.Have you done any front desk work before?
Bob: I have work experience in front desk.You have my supervisor’s report there.This will be my first paid position.
Justine: And why do you want to work at the Plaza Hotel?
Bob: Because it has a great reputation… not just for its service,but as a good place to work.
Justine: I’m glad to hear it.
图10 反思语言表达的思维导图
可以看到，思维导图的中间是话题reflection on language use，两边是反思的两个方面。语言表达positive方面有：be polite，遵循礼貌原则；give information as required，遵循数量原则，所说的话正好满足当前交际需要。而语言negative方面有：not specific不具体，工作经验应该更具体，或简要描述工作阅历；还有缺乏个性化的语言观点，a great reputation和a good place to work是大众化的看法。
8.改进与提高
回忆反思后，要针对交流中存在的问题找出改进办法。以工作面试为例，应聘者在语言交流方面可能有很多问题，如语言表达不流利、面试前准备的信息与雇主要了解的信息不一致、图式提取困难等。
举例来说，如果发现了图式提取困难这一问题，并想要解决这一问题，可以首先分析图式提取困难的原因。图式提取困难与认知者的经验、认知者的动机、认知者的信息加工能力、认知者的情绪等有关。由于认知者对特定概念、事物或事件的认知面窄，认知结构未成体系，新知和旧知关联处理能力不强，语言刺激反应训练不够等因素，图式调取会出现延缓或困难。
而对这一困难有了清晰的分析后，同样可以使用思维工具来整理改进和提高的方法：
图11 改进和提高口语表达中图式提取困难
9.归纳与总结
最后，对口语表达进行归纳与总结，对整个口语活动进行打包整理，帮助我们提取、分类和存储记忆知识，提高学习效果。例如，我们可利用括号图归纳英语会话的所有策略和技巧，包括说前、说中和说后的策略，甚至对自己使用的实践策略也可以进行归纳和总结。
三 学以致用
1.假设你将接受一个英语访谈，请看下面的访谈问题，并利用思维可视化工具画出访谈的主题图或语言图。
（1）Do you often see a doctor? Give your reasons.
（2）What do you do when you have a cold or a headache?
（3）Do you believe that “Happiness lies first of all in health”? Why or why not?
（4）Do you buy health insurance? Give your reasons.
（5）What do you think about the medical care in your university?
2.观看视频，分析应聘者在对话交流中运用了哪些交际策略支持语言输出。请填写在下列方框中。
3.请从下列话题中选择一个和同学结对展开对话，会话采用问答的方式，至少就话题询问5个以上的问题。请记录下你们的会话，并在会话结束后利用思维可视化工具对语言表达进行回忆和反思。
Hobby Work Travel
Sports Online shopping Future plan
四 理解自查
1.结合说前学习策略，思考并回答下面的问题：
（1）Why do we need to visualize the topic as well as the language to be used in the conversation?
（2）After you visualize what you want to say,is it easier to speak out your ideas in English?If not,why?
2.图式策略对提升口语表达能力有哪些帮助？
3.在说前、说中、说后各个阶段，你需要着重加强训练哪些部分呢？请画图展示你的改进计划。
五 体验应用
Task 1: Prepared speaking task (1)
(Teachers can choose suitable materials from students’ other language courses)
1.Students will be required to answer the factual information questions of the given listening materials;
2.Students could adopt the following tips in their oral practice.
Task 2: Prepared speaking task (2)
（Teachers can choose suitable materials from students’ other language courses）
1.Students will be required to express their own opinions after listening or watching the given materials;
2.Students could adopt the following tips in their oral practice.
Task 3: Prepared speaking task (3)
1.Students will be required to make a presentation/speech around a given topic (Topics can be related to previous tasks or topics from students’ other language courses.);
2.Students could adopt the following tips in their oral practice.
Task 4: Unprepared speaking task
（Teachers can choose suitable materials from students’ other language courses,or they can use materials of IELTS Speaking Test Part 1/Part 3）
1.Students will be required to experience the conversation practice on the textbook/from the handout;
2.Students could adopt the following tips in their oral practice.
六 反思提升
请结合本节内容的学习、实践与思考，完成下表。
小结与自评
1.章节内容图解
（1）英语听力学习过程
（2）英语阅读学习过程
（3）英语写作学习过程
（4）英语口语学习过程
2.目标达成自评（使用0～5分进行，0表示完全没有达成，5表示完全达成）通过本章学习，我________
参考文献
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Krashen S .We Acquire Vocabulary and Spelling by Reading: Additional Evidence for the Input Hypothesis[J].Modern Language Journal,1989,73(4):440-464.
Wyrick J.Steps to writing well[M].11th edition.New York: Cengage Learning,2011.
程晓堂，郑敏.英语学习策略：从理论到实践[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.
丁往道，吴冰，钟美荪，等.英语写作手册[M].2版.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2010.
杜爱红.元认知策略与大学英语写作[J].重庆大学学报（社会科学版），2004（03）：90-94.
顾永琦.英语教学中的学习策略培训：阅读与写作[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2011.
何少庆.英语教学策略理论与实践应用[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社，2010.
何兆熊，谭卫国.综合教程1学生用书[M].3版.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2019.
鲁子问，康淑敏.英语教学方法与策略[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008.
宋畅.学习策略训练与外语听力教学[M].北京：中国书籍出版社，2017.
文秋芳.英语学习策略论[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996.
附录1
读中阅读练习（选自2018年六级考试）
The Ebro Delta,in Spain,famous as a battleground during the Spanish Civil War,is now the setting for a different contest,one that is pitting rice farmers against two enemies: the rice-eating giant apple snail,and rising sea levels.What happens here will have a bearing on the future of European rice production and the overall health of southern European wetlands.
Located on the Mediterranean just two hours south of Barcelona，the Ebro Delta produces 120 million kilograms of rice a year，making it one of the continent’s most important ricegrowing areas.As the sea creeps into these fresh-water marshes，however，rising salinity （盐分）is hampering rice production.At the same time，this sea-water also kills off the greedy giant apple snail，an introduced pest that feeds on young rice plants.The most promising strategy has become to harness one foe against the other.
The battle is currently being waged on land,in greenhouses at the University of Barcelona.Scientists working under the banner “Project Neurice” are seeking varieties of rice that can withstand the increasing salinity without losing the absorbency that makes European rice ideal for traditional Spanish and Italian dishes.
“The project has two sides,” says Xavier Serrat,Neurice project manager and researcher at the University of Barcelona,“the short-term fight against the snail,and a mid- to long-term fight against climate change.But the snail has given the project greater urgency.”
Originally from South America，the snails were accidentally introduced into the Ebro Delta by Global Aquatic Technologies，a company that raised the snails for fresh-water aquariums （水族馆），but failed to prevent their escape.For now，the giant apple snail’s presence in Europe is limited to the Ebro Delta.But the snail continues its march to new territory，says Serrat.“The question is not whether it will reach other rice-growing areas of Europe，but when.”
Over the next year and a half investigators will test the various strains of salt-tolerant rice they’ve bred.In 2018,farmers will plant the varieties with the most promise in the Ebro Delta and Europe’s other two main rice-growing regions—along the Po in Italy,and France’s Rhone.A season in the field will help determine which,if any,of the varieties are ready for commercialization.
As an EU-funded effort，the search for salt-tolerant varieties of rice is taking place in all three countries.Each team is crossbreeding a local European short-grain rice with a longgrain Asian variety that carries the salt-resistant gene.The scientists are breeding successive generations to arrive at varieties that incorporate salt tolerance but retain about 97 percent of the European rice genome （基因组）.
1.Why does the author mention the Spanish Civil War at the beginning of the passage?
A.It had a great impact on the life of Spanish rice farmers.
B.It is of great significance in the records of Spanish history.
C.Rice farmers in the Ebro Delta are waging a battle of similar importance.
D.Rice farmers in the Ebro Delta are experiencing as hard a time as in the war.
2.What may be the most effective strategy for rice farmers to employ in fighting their enemies?
A.Striking the weaker enemy first.
B.Killing two birds with one stone.
C.Eliminating the enemy one by one.
D.Using one evil to combat the other.
3.What do we learn about “Project Neurice”?
A.Its goals will have to be realized at a cost.
B.It aims to increase the yield of Spanish rice.
C.Its immediate priority is to bring the pest under control.
D.It tries to kill the snails with the help of climate change.
4.What does Neurice project manager say about the giant apple snail?
A.It can survive only on southern European wetlands.
B.It will invade other rice-growing regions of Europe.
C.It multiplies at a speed beyond human imagination.
D.It was introduced into the rice fields on purpose.
5.What is the ultimate goal of the EU-funded program?
A.Cultivating ideal salt-resistant rice varieties.
B.Increasing the absorbency of the Spanish rice.
C.Introducing Spanish rice to the rest of Europe.
D.Popularizing the rice crossbreeding technology.
附录2
Whatever Happened to Manners?
Linda Dano
Do you remember a time when people were a little nicer,a little softer,a little gentler with each other? I certainly do,and I feel that much of the world has somehow gotten away from that.I see such a difference in New York City,for example,from when I first moved here more than 20 years ago: people rushing into elevators without giving those inside a chance to get off first,never saying “Thank you” when others hold a door open for them,or “Please” when they want a coworker to hand them something,never giving a wave or nod of appreciation when another motorist lets them pull out into traffic.
We get lazy,and in our laziness we think that something like a simple “Thank you” doesn’t really matter.But it can matter very much.The fact is that no matter how nicely we dress,how beautifully we decorate our homes,or how lovely our dinner parties are,we can’t be truly stylish without good manners.
In fact,I think of good manners as a sort of hidden beauty secret.Haven’t you noticed that the kindest,most generous people seem to keep getting prettier? They become Cary Grant or Lauren Bacall right before our eyes.It’s funny how that happens,but it does.
Take the long-lost art of saying “Thank you”.Like wearing a little lipstick or making sure your hair is neat,getting into the habit of saying “Thank you” can make you feel better about yourself,and then you look better to everyone around you.A gracious manner not only sets an excellent example for your children and grandchildren but it adds priceless panache to your image.
Positive Thanking
Of course,saying “Thank you” does wonders for the person on the receiving end,too.I recently got a thank-you note from a guest who attended a 40th birthday party that Frank and I hosted for Frank’s daughter-in-law.The note was lovely enough,but even lovelier was the fact that the guest had also included a recipe for a dish I’d complimented her on at an earlier gathering.It was a sweet gesture that made me feel terrific and put me in a great mood.What a gift!
Many of us know we should write thank-you notes,but we think we don’t have the time or energy.Now,I know we all have busy lives,but I bet the note my guest sent me didn’t take long to write.If you feel like a feel because you’ve put off sending a card,write a note that says,“I should have done this two weeks ago,but I didn’t want to let another day go by without telling you how much I enjoyed your party.” It’s much better than not writing at all.
Magic Words
Just as powerful as a thank-you note is the simple phrase “Excuse me”.Don’t you just hate it when someone knocks an enormous carry-on bag into your head when he’s barreling down the aisle to board an airplane — and then doesn’t bother to say he’s sorry? But when someone does stop and turn around and genuinely apologize,doesn’t it melt away most — if not all — of the irritation you felt?
Same for holding the door open for others when you see their hands are full.I’ll even do this for a hotel bellman carrying my luggage.Just because his job is to carry my bags doesn’t mean he doesn’t appreciate a little gesture that makes his life a wee bit easier.And punctuality is not a thing of the past,either.Being on time for lunch dates,for example,shows the person we’re meeting that we value his or her precious time as much as we do our own.
Bringing Manners Home
And for heaven’s sake,we shouldn’t forget to use good manners with our own families.That’s where it counts the most because those are the people we love the most.How lovely it would be to put a card on your spouse’s pillow at night to say “Thank you” for some dear thing he or she did for you or even just to say “I love you”.
Similarly,bringing home the most insignificant little presents for people you cherish will go a long way.It shows they’re in your thoughts and you want to make them happy.If you’re a husband,how long has it been since you walked in the door with a rose for your wife? Or maybe her favorite candy — even if it’s just a Snickers bar? You’d sure get my attention if you brought me a Snickers! I firmly believe spouses should be gracious about the routine things they expect each other to do.Show that you don’t take the other person for granted.He or she is much more likely to treat you the same way.
Good manners are infectious.Now,if we could just get everyone to catch them!
附录3
Five Traits of the Educated Man
Nicholas Murray Butler
A question often asked is: “What are the marks of an educated man?” It is plain that one may gain no inconsiderable body of learning in some special field of knowledge without at the same time acquiring those habits and traits which are the marks of an educated gentleman.A reasonable amount of learning must of course accompany an education,but,after all,that amount need not be so very great in any one field.An education will make its mark and find its evidences in certain traits,characteristics,and capacities which have to be acquired by patient endeavor,by following good examples,and by receiving wise discipline and sound instructions.
These traits or characteristics may be variously described and classified,but among them are five that should always stand out clearly enough to be seen by all men.The first of these is correctness and precision in the use of the mother tongue.The quite shocking slovenliness and vulgarity of much of the spoken English,as well as not a little of the written English,which one hears and sees,proves beyond peradventure that years of attendance upon schools and colleges that are thought to be respectable have produced no impression.When one hears English well spoken,with pure diction,correct pronunciation,and an almost unconscious choice of the right word,he recognizes it at once.How much easier he finds it to imitate English of the other sort!
A second and indispensable trait of the educated man is refined and gentle manners,which are themselves the expression of fixed habits of thought and action.“Manners make the man,”wrote Wykeham William over his gates at Winchester and at Oxford.He pointed to a great truth.When manners are superficial,artificial,and forced,no matter what their form,they are bad manners.When,however,they are the natural expression of fixed habits of thought and action,and when they reveal a refined and cultivated nature,they are good manners.There are certain things that gentlemen do not do,and they do not do them simply because they are bad manners.The gentleman instinctively knows the difference between those things which he may and should do and those things which he may not and should not do.
A third trait of the educated man is the power and habit of reflection.Human beings for the most part live wholly on the surface of life.They do not look beneath the surface or far beyond the present moment and that part of the future which is quickly to follow it.They do not read those works of prose and poetry which have become classic because they reveal power and habit of reflection and induce that power and habit in others.When one reflects long enough to ask the question how? He is on the way to knowing something about science.When he reflects long enough to ask the question why? He may,if he persists,even become a philosopher.
A fourth trait of the educated man is the power of growth.He continues to grow and develop from birth to his dying day.His interests expand,his contacts multiply,his knowledge increases,and his reflection becomes deeper and wider.It would appear to be true that not many human beings,and even not many of those who have had a college education,continue to grow after they are twenty-four or twenty-five years of age.By that time it is usual to settle down to life on a level of more or less contented intellectual interest and activity.The whole present day movement for adult education is a systematic and definite attempt to keep human beings growing long after they have left school and college,and,therefore,to help educate them.
A fifth trait of the educated man is his possession of efficiency,or the power to do.The mere visionary dreamer,however charming or however wise,lacks something which an education requires.The power to do may be exercised in any one of a thousand ways,but when it clearly shows itself,that is evidence that the period of study,of discipline,and of companionship with parents and teachers has not been in vain.
Given these five characteristics,one has the outline of an educated man.That outline may be filled in by scholarship,by literary power,by mechanical skills,by professional zeal and capacity,by business competence,or by social and political leadership.So long as the framework or outline is there,the content may be pretty much what you will,assuming,of course,that the fundamental elements of the great tradition which is civilization,and its outstanding records and achievements in human personality,in letters,in science,in the fine arts,and in human institutions,are all present.
附录4
附录1阅读答案：
CDCBA
附录2阅读答案：
1.A
2.F T T T F
3.
1) Refer to Paragraph 1 for the four examples.
2) Refer to Paragraph 4.It could not only set an excellent example for your children and grandchildren but it adds priceless panache to your image.
3) Refer to Paragraph 5.The fact that the guest had included a recipe for a dish the author had complimented her on at an earlier gathering made the author feel all the more appreciative.
4) Refer to Paragraph 7.It is the simple phrase “Excuse me”.
5) Refer to Paragraph 9.It is because to use good manners with our own families counts the most,for those are the people we love the most.
6) As good manners are infectious,she wishes that everyone would catch them so that they would spread.
附录3阅读答案：
1.B
2.F T T T T
3.
1) Refer to Paragraph 1.These characteristics have to be acquired by patient endeavor,by following good examples,and by receiving wise discipline and sound instruction.
2) Refer to Paragraph 2.They are pure diction,correct pronunciation,and an almost unconscious choice of the right words.
3) Refer to Paragraph 3.Good manners are natural expressions of one’s habits of thought and action while bad manners are superficial,artificial,and forced.
4) Refer to Paragraph 5.It keeps human beings growing long after they have left school and college,and therefore,it helps educate them.
5) Refer to Paragraph 6.A visionary dreamer may have charming and wise ideas,but he lacks the power to do,which is one of the major qualities of a well-educated man.