Roman Britain and the Anglo⁃Saxons
Between the eighth and fifth centuries B.C.，the Celts，who dominated western and central Europe for part of the first millennium B.C.，moved to Britain and became the dominant group on the island.The Celts mostly settled in the southeastern part of England.They were good farmers and achieved considerable prosperity.
The Celts in Britain attracted the attention of the Romans because they tried to help their brothers in Gaul in their periodic rebellion against the Roman rule there.The Roman legions briefly invaded Britain in 55 B.C.and 54 B.C.，and then finally in A.D.43，the Romans turned Britain into a province of the Roman Empire and the people there became known as the Britons.In A.D.123，the Romans built Hadrian’s Wall（named after the ruling Roman emperor at the time），to stop attacks from the north by Scottish tribes.The Romans built towns and cities in Britain and generally kept peace.However，during the first decade of the 5th century，the Romans withdrew from Britain because Rome itself was threatened by Germanic invasions.The Britons were left to defend themselves with neither an army nor military supplies as they were not allowed to keep weapon when the Romans were there.
Soon after the Romans left，groups of Germanic warriors landed in Britain.They were the Angles，the Saxons，and the Jutes from Denmark，Northern Germany，and the coast of the North Sea，collectively known as the Anglo⁃Saxons.At first，they were welcomed by the Britons because they helped in the fight against invaders from Ireland and Scotland.However，when the invaders were repulsed，the Anglo⁃Saxons refused to leave.They liked the new place because the natural environment in Britain was a more hospitable than their old homeland，which had a harsher climate.They rebelled against British authority and spread devastation and terror across southeast Britain.The Britons fought heroically to defend their homeland.The legendary King Arthur and his knights at Camelot originated from this period.By the early 7th century，the Britons had been driven into the mountains，and the Germanic people occupied the fertile lowland zone.The conquest was remarkably thorough.From that time on，English，meaning the language of the Angles，replaced the old Celtic language as the major language of the land.The country became known as England，meaning the land of the Angles.
The Anglo⁃Saxons were not Roman Christians when they arrived in Britain，so the Pope sent missionaries to convert them in 597.The missionaries were led by Saint Augustine，who would become the first Archbishop of Canterbury.They worked hard to convert the Anglo⁃Saxons to Roman Christianity，and by the late 7th century，Roman Christianity had become the dominant religion in England.The Christian church in the Middle Ages was not only a religious organization，but also a promoter and custodian of culture.The conversion of Anglo⁃Saxons to Christianity helped the development of Anglo⁃Saxon Christian culture，which reached its highest of creativity in the late 7th century and early 8th century，a period known as the Northumbrian Renaissance.The epic poem Beowulf，the most important work of Old English literature，originated during this period.
In the late 8th century，the Vikings from the Scandinavian countries in Northern Europe came in their long boats and raided the coast of England.The Vikings could penetrate deep inland because their fast and shallow boats were able to sail up England’s numerous rivers.They soon occupied most of the country.This was known as the Danish invasion.In the process of fighting against the Vikings，the Anglo⁃Saxons gradually became united under Alfred the Great，king of Wessex（871—899）.Alfred was able to reconquer part of the lost territory from the Vikings，but he was not able to drive them out of the country.In 886，he reached an agreement with the Vikings allowing them to live in the northeastern part of England，which became known as the Danelaw.After that，the Danes settled down peacefully;they were assimilated into English culture and converted to Christianity.
The Danes had an important influence on the development of English culture.They introduced a large number of Danish words into the English language.Some common English words，such as sky，they，their，them，bank，gap，gate，guess，kid，knife，leg，ugly，and wrong，were Danish in origin.The British system of counting by the unit of 12 was also adopted from the Danes：a dozen means 12;a jury has 12 jurors;12 pennies made up one shilling of old English money;and one foot has 12 inches.
The country was plunged into war again in 1066 when King Edward died without an heir，causing a succession dispute.Harold Godwinson，Edward’s brother in law，was chosen as the successor by the council of noblemen.However，Duke William of Normandy in France challenged Harold’s succession and launched an invasion of England in October 1066，known as the Norman Conquest.The Normans quickly defeated Harold’s army at the Battle of Hastings，and established control over the country by Christmas 1066.
The Norman Conquest was the last successful foreign invasion of England.It had a tremendous impact on the development of English society in almost every aspect.Feudalism became well established in England during the Norman period，and the country entered the Middle Ages.