The American Revolution
The American Revolution，was the first colonial revolution in the world.It ended British rule over its 13 colonies in America and gave birth to a new country，the United States of America.The American Revolution was largely the result of British efforts to tighten control over the colonies after the Seven Years’War（1756—1763），just at a time when the colonies felt little need for British defense and so had the least tolerance for high⁃handed British rule.The economic，cultural and social development of the colonies themselves also paved the way for independence.
By the time of the American Revolution，the colonies were economically successful and had become very important to British trade.They supplied Britain with large quantities of raw materials such as tobacco，cotton，timber and grain，and purchased British manufactured goods in return.Administratively，the colonies had become more mature by the middle of the 18th century.Each colony was administered by a governor who was usually appointed by the King and was responsible to the King only，a council whose members were appointed by the governor，and an assembly whose members were elected by colonists.In almost all of the colonies，the assembly played a very important role in colonial affairs because it was the assembly that passed tax bills to raise revenue for the government.Culturally，the 13 colonies were no longer purely English.Their population was mixed，especially in the middle and southern colonies.Immigrants from Germany，Ireland，and Scotland made up about 30％ of the white population.They often formed their own communities and maintained their own cultures，with little affinity for British culture.
Socially，all of the colonies had a wide gap between the rich and the poor.However，the absence of the titled aristocracy and the necessity for most people to work for their fortune made colonial society less rigid than British society.
The colonies enjoyed a high degree of self⁃government before the mid⁃18th century.Colonial laws passed by the British Parliament were not strictly enforced because Britain was occupied with internal affairs.As long as the colonies supplied much⁃needed raw materials and markets，they were mostly left alone by the British government.
Things began to change in the middle of the 18th century.Influenced by mercantilist theory，European countries tried to gain as much wealth as possible through colonial expansion.As a result，a series of colonial wars were fought between England and France for control of North America，the most important of which was the Seven Years’War between 1756 and 1763，also known as the French and Indian War.Britain won the war and drove the French out of North America.The Treaty of Paris signed in 1763 gave England all of Canada and the entire area east of the Mississippi River.
The British victory removed the French threat permanently and made the colonies more secure.As a result，British colonists no longer needed British protection against the French，and they became less tolerant of British troops in America.In addition，the war helped to develop a closer relationship between the colonies.Before the war，the colonies had relatively little to do with each other and colonists identified themselves with their colonies，using names such as Virginians，Marylanders，or Georgians.The war provided an opportunity for colonists to get to know each other as they fought together.In addition，they developed a sense of being different from the British when they saw the arrogance of the British officers during the war and the harshness of the punishments they used to discipline the troops.These were abhorrent to the colonial soldiers，who enjoyed much more freedom than the British soldiers.Also，the Royal Proclamation of 1763 prohibited white settlement west of the Appalachian Mountain in order to appease the Indians.This angered Americans because they had hoped that victory over the French would allow them to expand further west.Finally，the efforts of the British government to solve its financial problems caused by the war were the final straw that led to the American Revolution.
After the Seven Years’War，the British government tried to consolidate its control over the vast area of its colonial territories in America in order to raise revenue.The British Parliament believed that the colonists had the responsibility to contribute to the cost of the war and passed a series of tax bills to raise revenue in the colonies，such as the Stamp Act of 1765 which levied a tax on all printed matters in the colonies，such as legal documents，newspapers，almanacs，pamphlets，licenses，college diplomas，and playing cards，and the Townshend Act of 1767 which imposed custom duties on paper，lead，painter’s colors，and tea.
These actions met stiff resistance in the colonies because the colonists believed that the British Parliament had no right to tax them apart from collecting tariffs and custom duties.They argued that tax laws in the colonies should be passed by the colonial assemblies and that the British Parliament did not have power to tax the colonists because they were not represented in Parliament.This led to the American slogan“No taxation without representation”.As a result，the British Parliament repealed the Stamp act in 1766 and the Townshend Act in 1770.Then the Parliament gave a monopoly over the tea trade to the East India Company in 1773，which caused another round of protests.On December 16，1773，a group of some 150 men in Boston，disguised as Indians，boarded three ships of the East India Company and threw￡10，000 worth of tea into the water.This event became known as the Boston Tea Party.In retaliation，the British Parliament passed five acts to punish the people of Boston and Massachusetts.The Boston Port Bill closed Boston to all commerce until Massachusetts had paid for the destroyed tea.The Quartering Act forced Massachusetts to provide housing and food for British soldiers in Boston.The Massachusetts Government Act revoked Massachusetts’colonial charter and abolished the elected Assembly.The Administration of Justice Act gave royal officials the right to be tried in England.The Quebec Act enlarged the Province of Quebec to include the area west of the Alleghenies and north of the Ohio River.This deprived the possibility of westward expansion by the northern colonies.These five acts were collectively known in America as the Intolerable Acts，and they provoked outrage in the colonies，particularly in Massachusetts.Boston called on the colonies to take cooperative actions to defend their rights and interests.
On September 5，1774，55 delegates from all of the colonies except Georgia met in Philadelphia to discuss the situation.This meeting was known as the First Continental Congress.It marked the transformation of Boston’s cause into a national movement，because the colonists knew that actions taken against Boston might be used against other colonies too.For the first time in colonial history，the concept of being Americans was raised at this meeting by Patrick Henry who told the representatives that“the distinctions between Virginians，Pennsylvanians，New Yorkers，and New Englanders are no more.I am not a Virginian，but an American.”
The representatives worked out a Declaration of Rights and Grievances in the form of a petition to the King.It demanded the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.At the same time，the Continental Congress created the Continental Association to boycott trade with Britain，Ireland，and the British West Indies if England refused to repeal the Intolerable Acts.The petition was rejected by the British Parliament，so the radical colonial leaders organized Committees of Safety to enforce the boycott.The Committees of Safety would soon become the executive arm of the revolution in each of the colonies.They enforced decisions of the Continental Congress and punished those who violated them.
However，few Americans thought in terms of independence in early 1775.Most saw themselves as fighting to protect their rights as British subjects.They hoped that their determination would force the British government to change its policies and grant them more self⁃government.
But this time，the British government did not back down.It sent a new governor to Massachusetts to enforce British laws and to suppress resistance.On April 19，the first battle between British troops and colonial militia took place at Lexington and Concord，Massachusetts，the latter of which became known as“the shot heard round the world.”
Twenty days after the Battles of Lexington and Concord，the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10，1775.Among the representatives were the founding fathers of the United States.Thomas Jefferson，Patrick Henry，Benjamin Franklin，and John Adams firmly advocated the revolutionary cause，while the majority of the representatives，including George Washington，still hoped to reach a peaceful solution to the problem.Congress drew up the“Olive Branch Petition”and sent it to the king，hoping he would change British policy.At the same time，Congress made preparations for war，taking steps to establish the Continental Army and appointing George Washington as its commander⁃in⁃chief.It also issued paper money to finance an eventual war.In July，the Congress issued the Declaration of the Cause and Necessity of Taking up Arms.It declared that the colonists were fighting for their rights as British subjects.Although fighting had been going on for four months，Congress was still reluctant to declare independence because most colonists were still sentimentally attached to their mother country and the King.
Thomas Paine played an important role in changing the popular attitude toward independence.In January 1776，he published the famous pamphlet Common Sense，in which he attacked the King as a tyrant and urged Americans to break with England and set up a republic.He argued that the independence of the colonies was a matter of common sense because it was“very absurd in supposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island，”and that“In no instance hath nature made the satellite larger than its primary planet.”Common Sense was widely read and was instrumental in persuading many people to support independence.
On June 7，Richard Henry Lee，a representative from Virginia，introduced a resolution in Congress calling on the colonies to declare their independence.After days of debate，Congress appointed a committee of five members，including Thomas Jefferson，Benjamin Franklin，and John Adams，to draft a declaration of independence.Thomas Jefferson wrote the final draft of the Declaration of Independence.The Declaration announced to the world that Americans“hold these truths to be self⁃evident，that all men are created equal，they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights，that among these are life，liberty，and the pursuit of happiness”.
Congress adopted the Declaration on July 2 and proclaimed it on July 4，a date that has since been celebrated as Independence Day.From that day on，the 13 colonies became the first 13 states of the United States of America.The War of Independence had officially begun.
The war went badly for the Americans during the first year because American troops were poorly trained and equipped.In August 1776，British troops defeated Washington’s army and captured New York.It was not until October 1777 that the Americans won their first major victory at Saratoga in New York.The Battle of Saratoga was a turning point in the American Revolutionary War because it convinced France to openly support the American war effort.The French sent out a large fleet and an army to help the Americans.The French fleet and army were instrumental in winning the crucial battle at Yorktown，Virginia in October 1781，which practically ended the war.After Yorktown，the British essentially gave up their effort to suppress the rebellion.The sheer distance between Britain and America made it difficult for the British government to supply its troops and to give effective orders.Also，it was a very costly war and the British public was resistant to new taxes that would have been needed to support it.
The Treaty of Paris，signed on September 2，1783，officially ended the war.Britain formally recognized the independence of the United States of America.The treaty gave the United States the entire territory east of the Mississippi River，stretching from the border of Canada in the north to the border of Florida in the south.Florida was given to Spain in return for Gibraltar which was captured by the British in earlier wars.Canada remained under British control.