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The religious Reformation in Europe started in 1517 and ended in 1646.It permanently ended the supreme power of the Pope over the Christian church in Western Europe，and split Europe into two religious camps：Catholic and Protestant.

During the high Middle Ages，the Catholic Church reached the peak of its power and wealth.Politically，the Catholic Church was almost a super state organization.Spiritually，the Pope was the highest authority in West Europe.The Pope appointed archbishops in all countries.Without the Pope’s blessing，a king could lose his throne.Economically，the Catholic Church was extremely wealthy.It collected a tax from church members，known as a tithe.Every family paid one tenth of its income to the church.

Power and wealth often bring corruption，and the Roman Catholic Church was no exception.By the late 15th century and early 16th century，the church suffered from many problems.Simony was rampant and absenteeism was also widespread.Some bishops did not visit their bishoprics for years.Many clerics violated the church principle of celibacy and kept concubines or frequented prostitutes.In addition，the clergy was beyond the control of lay rulers.These factors caused resentment among the people，as well as among the secular rulers.However，the immediate cause for the Reformation was the selling of indulgences.

Indulgences were granted by the church to free people from punishment for their sins.In the early period of the Christian Church，people who committed serious sins had to atone by doing penance such as flogging，fasting，or going on pilgrimages.In the Middle Ages，the Catholic Church encouraged people to pay money instead for indulgences to atone for their sins.

The selling of indulgence prompted Martin Luther（1483—1546）to post his 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg，Germany，in 1517.The theses attacked the corruption in the Catholic Church，and their publication marked the start of the Reformation.The Reformation caused a century of debate and war in Europe，and ultimately split the church into two separate churches，one Catholic and the other Protestant.Luther believed that salvation was not something that could be bought and sold;it could only come from one’s faith in God.He also believed that faith could come only from reading the Bible because the Bible was the true authority on religious matters，not the Pope or church councils.In order to make the Bible understandable to ordinary people，he translated it into German.

While Luther confined his reform effort within the church and tried to keep the old social order intact，other reformers such as the Calvinists were more radical.John Calvin（1509—1564），a reform⁃minded French theologian and humanist believed that the virtue of faith was above that of good work.He promoted the idea of predestination，which holds that certain people are chosen by God to be saved.Calvinists believed in individuals’responsibility to reorganize society according to God’s plan.Many scholars believe that Calvinists’religious confidence and well⁃disciplined activism produced an ethic that later promoted the development of capitalism.

England did not participate in the Reformation until 1529.English kings competed with the Pope for control of the clergy from the 12th century on.Beginning in the 14th century，there was also a growing resentment among the people against the papacy for several reasons.Firstly，Englishmen suspected that their interests were being sacrificed for the people in Rome because large amount of their wealth was sent to Rome.Secondly，the church enjoyed a double standard in matters of law;priests and clerics lived under the jurisdiction of the church and claimed immunity from secular laws，while the lay people were under both the Crown’s and the church’s jurisdiction.Thirdly，corruption was rampant in the church;there were clear contrasts between what the clergy preached and what they did.Finally，the church valued lavish forms and rituals more than inward worship and faith.

However，the immediate cause for the English Reformation was the king’s effort to get a divorce.King HenryⅧwanted to divorce his wife Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn，a lady at the court of Catherine.The only person who could grant a divorce was the Pope.But at that time，the Pope was under the influence of Catherine’s nephew，Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire，who would not consent to Henry’s divorcing his aunt.When it became clear that the Pope would not allow Henry to divorce Catherine，Henry broke with Rome and declared himself the supreme head of the church in England.He made use of popular resentment against the church and called the Reformation Parliament in November 1529.The Reformation Parliament passed many acts to address clerical abuses.In early 1534，Parliament authorized the king to abolish the traditional payment that each household traditionally made to the Pope.In November，1534，Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy which officially acknowledged the king as the“Supreme Head of the Church of England”.

The English Reformation successfully transferred religious authority in England from the Pope to the king，but it did not lead to much change in religious doctrine or church organization.The Church of England retained the Catholic Church’s hierarchical system of archbishops，bishops and parish priests，and also continued the traditional church ceremonies.In essence，the Church of England was Catholic without the Pope.

After Henry’s death，the English church experienced many changes.Henry’s son Edward was only nine years old when he succeeded to the throne in 1547.He was greatly influenced by his Protestant tutors and advisers.As a result，the church adopted radical Protestantism under Edward.But Edward lived a very short life and died in 1553.

Mary Tudor succeeded Edward.As the daughter of Catherine，Mary was a devout Catholic，and she was determined to return the church to Catholicism.She repealed the Act of Supremacy and recognized the Pope as the supreme head of the English church.She persecuted Protestants and executed more than 300 people as heretics，which earned her the nickname“Bloody Mary”.She married her cousin King PhilipⅡof Spain，a strong advocate of Roman Catholicism.To help her husband，Mary brought England into a war against France which ended in the loss of Calais，the last continental possession that England still held after the Hundred Years’War.Mary died in 1558 and was succeeded by her half sister Elizabeth.