秩序的信任危机

秩序的信任危机

自由秩序的支持者认为自由秩序惠及所有人。理论上,自由秩序可以保障利益的均衡,对美国有利的方面也对世界有利。但E.H.卡尔批评了这一谬论,认为这是“特权群体想借以虔诚的道德手段,以证明和维持其主导地位”。101即便确实如此,一个霸权国家也很难让对手相信它的意图是善意的。即使当下有可能,也很难让对手相信这些意图在将来也依然是善意的。换句话说,美国领导下的和平主张低估了无政府状态的威力。在一个没有最高权威维持和平的世界里,人们有强烈的动机去质疑一个超级大国的说法,特别是当这个大国还在不断延伸触角,扩大势力范围,煽动敌对国家的政治变革。

就美国而言,秩序的建立依照霸权规则,并在一定程度上依赖武装霸权实力,以及全球范围内的巨大军事优势。在对手看来,这简直就是在积蓄危险的权力。美国要求各国在贸易、人权或核扩散等领域遵守规则,更像是一种自利的权力攫取,暗含了改变地区秩序格局的企图。讽刺的是,如此做法使美国不像是一个维系现状稳定的强国,而是一个破坏稳定的修正主义者。对民主的支持似乎成了一种意识形态武器。对盟友的承诺也更像是一种为遏制对手而精心谋划的策略。推进民主和追求霸权纠缠在一起,难以区分。霸权国家眼中永恒、超然的道德价值、正义和法律,在对手眼里则像是以良德之辞矫饰的利益,灌输以道德普遍主义(moral universalism),以此赋权霸权随意制定、改造和强加自己的秩序。让对手认可并接受自己的好意是一件绝难之事。这也是美国与欧亚重量级大国之间安全竞争愈演愈烈的原因之一。

中国和俄罗斯的行为不能简单地归结为对美国过度干预的反应。两国都在加强监视,防止恐怖事件,而且也分别表现出了强硬的态度。两国都认为,只要等到本国足够富有和强大之时(中国正经历经济转型,俄罗斯正处于暂时的油价飙升时期),就可以抗衡如今美国的力量。尽管如此,它们的外部行为表现仍有很大一部分是对美行为的回应。中俄都认为自己不是在全盘撕毁秩序,而是反对美国修正主义,强调和维护秩序内的一些基本原则,例如威斯特伐利亚原则(Westphalian principles),其中包括国家至上原则和不干涉内政原则,虽然两国实际上更关心这些原则在自己身上的应用。两国认为,破坏这些原则就是在针对它们,是为了改变它们的政治制度。102这种恐惧来源于被外部力量侵略和羞辱的记忆。这就可以解释,为什么美国频繁尝试以“对话”“重启”或“数字外交”的形式来传达善意,还是无法阻止与两国关系的不断恶化。

美国一直追求在亚洲的首要地位,期望成为该地区无可匹敌的霸主,虽然美国人始终在最佳战术组合的问题上争论不休。但在中国看来,美国始终在寻求支配地位。103中国政府(直到最近)在其公开声明中都保持着谨慎的风格,人们只能通过那些非官方的内部材料猜测中国政府的想法。几十年来,这些文章一直将美国视为“强大的敌人”。但是,这并未促使中国在实力不够强大的时候就开始公开采取制衡措施。相反,中国选择了韬光养晦,敛其锋芒,直到其经济实力足以成为美国的竞争对手。中国认为美国的行为根本不是促进利益公平的良性做法,根据中国2006年的一本军队教科书上所述,美国“无视国际关系准则……使用炮舰外交,依托其自身军事力量充当世界警察,编造各种理由及借口在世界各地推行霸权政治”。外部帝国主义列强带来的百年耻辱记忆,为国家宣传提供了良好的素材,但也带来了真正的恐惧。一旦世界真正单极化,美国摆脱了能够与之较量的强大竞争者的束缚,着力部署从巴尔干半岛到中东再到非洲的军事行动,中国对此愈加警惕。

美国一再向中国保证其和平意图,即意在建立一个共同繁荣的地区秩序。但这并未阻止中国对美国的力量及其所采取行动的关注。1950年至1972年间,中国一直在警惕美国的敌对意图:美国向盟友施压,要求其在外交上拒绝承认中国,对中国进行核威胁以及实施贸易禁运,并与台湾当局和日本建立盟友关系。即便是1972年美国与中国签署《上海公报》,其实也是一种为实现权力最大化的利己手段,目的是加强对苏联的遏制,以及通过与中国建立更加紧密的经济纽带关系获取利益。在单极世界中,从海湾战争到科索沃战争,其间展现出美国尖端军事技术、核防御系统的发展,以及美国在没有联合国安理会授权的情况下推翻他国政权,这些行径加大了中国的担心。1999年,中国驻贝尔格莱德大使馆遭遇北约轰炸,不论事件偶然与否,中国都会理解为有意之举。

今天,悲观主义者在中国的安全精英中占主导地位。104美国在中国沿海周边地区广泛部署,与印度—太平洋地区邻国建立了一系列联盟和防务关系。此外,美国的“亚洲转向”(Asia Pivot)战略如同蚕食和半包围策略,美国主导的“航行自由行动”(Freedom of Navigation Operations,FONOPS)更像是一种反华遏制行动。中国人将美国视为一个修正主义者,认为美国企图重塑一个对自身更加有利的全球环境。在中国看来,关于美国修正主义行为的证据无处不在:北约的扩张,美国对巴拿马、海地、波斯尼亚和科索沃的干预,海湾战争,阿富汗战争,以及入侵伊拉克。2005年,美国支持乌克兰、格鲁吉亚和吉尔吉斯斯坦爆发“颜色革命”,对此,中国外事部门负责人相信:美国意在“进一步传播民主,要把整个地球变成蓝色”。

俄罗斯也不相信美国关于建立良性秩序的主张。105俄罗斯的观点可能在一定程度上受到复仇主义的帝国野心驱使,目的在于恢复对其“近邻”的掌控。俄罗斯也认为自己是在阻止欧洲—大西洋世界的扩张。它使整个国家处于一种动员状态,对“危机之弧”(arc of crisis)周边所出现的紧急情况时刻保持警惕。俄罗斯担心美国在其边境和首都支持政权颠覆行动和“颜色革命”。美国的行为则在无意中助长了这一担忧。它在俄罗斯的打击范围之内实施军事部署,包括半包围式驻扎、扩张联盟、再度加强反弹道导弹防御系统,以及煽动政权颠覆。这样的行径使美国看起来根本不像是一个互惠秩序的缔造者,而更像一个傲慢的入侵者。俄罗斯反对伊拉克战争,并且相信:美国就是动乱的导火索,其行为必须加以制止。2006年,伊拉克全线崩溃之际,美国总统乔治·W.布什和俄罗斯总统弗拉基米尔·普京(Vladimir Putin)联合召开了一场新闻发布会。会上,布什表示愿意“推进伊拉克等地区的制度变革,以实现其新闻自由和宗教自由”,并希望“俄罗斯也能加入其中”。然而,一些人口中的自由解放,在另一些人看来却混乱不堪。普京对此做出了尖锐的回应,他强调:“我们绝对不想要他们在伊拉克制造的那种民主。”106利比亚战争爆发前夕,在关于是否仅允许设立禁飞区的决议中,俄罗斯投了弃权票。之后,卡扎菲政权倾覆,一切重塑关系的希望都化为了泡影。

在大国竞争时代成为公开事实之前,美国显然不希望自身与俄罗斯的冲突进一步升级。但竞争往往在不经意间浮现。令美国的俄罗斯问题专家感到困惑的是:

每一届美国新政府在刚上台时都曾明确承诺将改善与前冷战对手之间的关系,但又都以非常相似的方式失败。比尔·克林顿时代在科索沃问题上造成了最终近乎灾难性的僵局;乔治·W.布什时代以俄罗斯轰炸格鲁吉亚告终;奥巴马时代则以俄罗斯“吞并”克里米亚以及通过黑客行动影响美国大选落幕。107

俄罗斯对美国的行动做出了反应,并且对美国表现出越来越不信任的态度。在北约连续进行几轮东扩之前,美国曾以非正式的方式作出承诺,称伴随苏联解体,北约将停止进一步东扩,以说服其支持德国统一并从德国退出,“在保持扩张可能性的同时,力图在冷战后的欧洲最大限度地发挥美国的力量”,108但是美国后来违反了该协议。用乔治·凯南的话来说,如果美国的势力扩张激发了俄罗斯的“民族主义、反西方和军国主义倾向”,那么耻辱感和不信任问题则加重了对方的敌意。普京公开指责美国将俄罗斯视为“战败的附庸国”,而不是合作伙伴。美国的决策者并不认为自己是压制潜在对手的掠食者,而将视自己为解放者,其对自由秩序的扩张意在维持整个大陆的稳定,同时在必要时保留足以遏制俄罗斯的实力。美国国家安全委员会于1994年10月作出的一项评估表明,其基本原则主要是“维持东部地区的稳定”,但同时将“保险政策或战略对冲等针对俄罗斯的新遏制措施留为后手”109。如果说美国想要实现某种和谐稳定,那么这种稳定必须完全符合美国的利益要求,而俄罗斯需要完全信任美国的意图,即便美国实力不断增长,即便它会出尔反尔。

在这种背景下,对于美国驻俄罗斯前任大使迈克尔·麦克福尔这样一位公开的自由秩序捍卫者来说,要在鼓动自由主义者抗议的同时,尝试与俄罗斯建立良好关系,这是非常困难的。麦克福尔与俄罗斯的互动再次揭示了自由秩序的困境。1996年,克林顿政府干预俄罗斯大选,支持当时已四面楚歌的腐败候选人鲍里斯·叶利钦(Boris Yeltsin)。叶利钦针对当时备受欢迎的共产主义竞争对手进行蓄意破坏、造谣和阻挠。美国从国际货币基金组织筹备巨额贷款,并为叶利钦发起的运动提供专业指导。克林顿曾于私下承认叶利钦是美国的宠儿,因为他的目标确实与美国的利益相一致。“我们一直提醒老鲍里斯,‘好吧,这就是你接下来要做的事情——再把你的名声搞臭一点’。”110不干涉公正的选举,可能会抬高一个敌对的人物;而支持自己的伙伴就不得不干预选举,这实在是一个令人不快的两难之选。叶利钦成功破坏了新生的俄罗斯民主的完整性,并为之后的普京主义(Putinism)奠定了基础。麦克福尔大使承认自由秩序面临这种困境,也认为外国势力对民主的推动——出于历史原因——可能看起来像是一种颠覆,但他还是向人权活动人士示好,并在莫斯科的斯帕索大厦(Spaso House)接待了他们。这些行动让普京这样的人更加认定:麦克福尔这位民主狂热分子,正在煽动革命。111俄当局对麦克福尔及其家人发动了一场恐吓行动。两年之后,麦克福尔离开了俄罗斯,他重申,虽然他去俄罗斯并非为了煽动革命,但伊朗和叙利亚政府确实已被推翻,而这为普京的无端恐惧提供了“许多事实基础”。麦克福尔的让步发人深省。

注释

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63. The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States(New York:Norton,2004),p.362.

64. Marc Trachtenberg,A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement 1945—1963(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1999),pp.12—13,14,15,27—28.

65. Forrestal Diaries,28 July 1945,vol.2,p.75.

66. Foreign Relations of the United States 1961—1963 14:87—98(4 June 1961);转引自Marc Trachtenberg,A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement 1945—1963(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1999),p.283。

67. G.John Ikenberry,Liberal Leviathan: The Origins,Crisis and Transformation of the American World Order(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2011),p.27,n.35.

68. Nuno Monteiro,“Unrest Assured:Why Unipolarity Is Not Peaceful”,International Security 36:3(2011/2012),pp.9—40.

69. Philip Stephens,“Peace and Prosperity:It is Worth Saving the Liberal Order”,Financial Times,9 February 2017.

70. Tanisha Fazal,“Dead Wrong? Battle Deaths,Military Medicine,and Exaggerated Reports of War's Demise”,International Security 39:1(2014),pp.95—125:p.116.

71. Michael Mann,“Have Wars and Violence Declined?” Theory and Society 47(2018),pp.37—60:pp.54—55.

72. William D.Hartung and Bridget Moix,“Deadly Legacy:US Arms to Africa and the Congo War”,World Policy Institute,3 February 2000,pp.2—3.

73. Michael Fullilove,“We Must Find a New Asia Focus as World Order Changes”,The Australian,10 May 2019.

74. 感谢丹尼尔·伊莫瓦尔制作并提供该图。

75. Paul T.Chamberlin,The Cold War's Killing Fields: Rethinking the Long Peace(New York:Harper Collins,2018),p.1.

76. Conrad C.Crane,American Airpower Strategy in Korea,1950—1953(Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,2000),p.8;John Tirman,The Deaths of Others: The Fate of Civilians in America's Wars(New York:Oxford University Press,2011),p.92.

77. Secretary of State Dean Acheson to Ambassador Alan Kirk,28 June 1950,in William Stueck,“The Korean War”,in Melvyn P.Leffer and Odd Arne Westad,eds.,The Cambridge History of the Cold War,Volume 1: Origins(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010),p.276.

78. Michael Lind,Vietnam: The Necessary War: A Reinterpretation of America's Most Disastrous Military Conflict(New York:Touchstone,1999),pp.31—76.

79. Fredrik Logevall,Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam(Berkeley,CA:University of California Press,1998).

80. John McNaughton,“Proposed Course of Action re Vietnam”,24 March 1965,in George C.Herring,ed.,The Pentagon Papers,abridged edn(New York:McGraw-Hill,1993),pp.115—118.

81. Henry Kissinger,“The Viet Nam Negotiations”,Foreign Affairs 47:2(1969),pp.211—234:pp.218—219.

82. Statement of Principles,Project of the New American Century,3 June 1997,at http://www.newamericancentury.org/statementof-principles.htm;letter to President Clinton,26 January 1998,at http://www.newamericancentury.org/iraqclintonletter.htm.

83. Michael J.Mazarr,Leap of Faith: Hubris,Negligence,and America's Greatest Foreign Policy Tragedy(New York:Public Affairs,2019),pp.149,179,192—193;Patrick Porter,Blunder: Britain's War in Iraq(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2018),pp.72—132;Ahsan I.Butt,“Why Did the United States Invade Iraq in 2003?” Security Studies,4 January 2019,pp.2—21.

84. 转引自Nicholas Lemann,“The Next World Order”,The New Yorker 24 March 2002。

85. Thomas E.Ricks,“Briefing Depicted Saudis as Enemies”,Washington Post,6 August 2002.

86. George Packer,“The Liberal Quandary over Iraq”,New York Times Magazine,8 December 2002,pp.104—7.

87. “Principles for Iraq—Policy Guidelines”,13 May 2003,Donald Rumsfeld Papers,at http://papers.rumsfeld.com/library/default.asp?zoom_sort=0&zoom_query=principles+for+iraq&zoom_per_page=10&zoom_and=0&Tag+Level+1=-1%7E0&Tag+Level+2=-1%7E0.

88. Bob Woodward,State of Denial(London:Pocket Books,2006),pp.83—85;Wolfowitz,转引自T.Ricks,Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq(New York:Penguin,2006),p.30。

89. 参见Eliot A.Cohen,“Iraq Can't Resist Us”,Wall Street Journal,23 December 2001。

90. “White House Says Iraq Sovereignty Could Be Limited”,New York Times,22 April 2004.

91. 转引自John A.Tirpak,“The Air Force's ‘Forever War’ Is Its Toughest Pill to Swallow”,Air Force Magazine,March 2018。

92. Shawn Snow,“Esper Says US Forces Combating ISIS in Libya ‘Continue to Mow the Lawn’”,Military Times,15 November 2019.

93. Letter,Syria Study Group to Senate Majority Leader and Speaker of the House of Representatives,1 May 2019,“Key Findings”,p.1,at https://static.politico.com/5c/d9/9f55a18c44f9905ac21fa772a198/syria-study-group-interim-assessment-and-recommendations.pdf.

94. Micah Zenko,Reforming US Drone Strike Policies(Council on Foreign Relations,Special Report no.65,January 2013),pp.12—14;Greg Miller,“CIA See ks New Authority to Expand Yemen Drone Campaign”,Washington Post,18 April 2012.

95. Kurt Volker,“What the US Risks by Relying on Drones”,Washington Post,27 October 2012.

96. 参见David H.Petraeus,“America Must Stand Tall”,Politico,7 February 2017;Ben Glaze,“Fight Against ISIS a ‘Generational Struggle’,Warns Former Top US Army Chief General Petraeus”,Mirror,22 November 2017;“Petraeus:We Went to Afghanistan for a Reason,and We Need to Stay”,16 June 2017,at https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/petraeus-went-afghanistan-reason-need-stay。

97. Remarks by Lieutenant-General H.R.McMaster at the Munich Security Conference,22 February 2018,at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-ltg-h-r-mcmaster-munich-security-conference/.Kyle Rempfer,“H.R.McMaster Says the Public Is Fed a ‘War-Weariness’ Narrative that Hurts US Strategy”,Military Times,8 May 2019.

98. Robert J.Lieber,Retreat and Its Consequences: American Foreign Policy and the Problem of World Order(New York:Cambridge University Press,2016);“Foreign Policy Realists are Unrealistic on Iraq”,The Chronicle Review,18 October 2002;“The Folly of Containment”,Commentary,7 March 2003,pp.15—21;“Rethinking America's Grand Strategy”,Chronicle of Higher Education,4 June 2004.

99. “War with Iraq Is Not in America's National Interest”,New York Times,26 September 2002.

100. Kori Schake,“The Trump Doctrine Is Winning and the World Is Losing”,New York Times,15 June 2018.

101. E.H.Carr,The Twenty Years' Crisis 1919—1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations(London:Palgrave Macmillan,2001[1939]),pp.42—62,80.

102. Nicholas Redman,“Moscow Rules”,Survival 61:3(2019),pp.247—254:p.249.

103. Andrew J.Nathan and Andrew Scobell,“How China Sees America:The Sum of Beijing's Fears”,Foreign Affairs 91:5(2012),pp.32—47;Ian Easton,“How China's Military Really Sees America”,The National Interest,16 April 2018,also the source of quotations from Chinese authors that follow.

104. 引文来自Andrew J.Nathan and Andrew Scobell,“How China Sees America:The Sum of Beijing's Fears”,Foreign Affairs,91:5(2012),pp.32—47。

105. Peter Conradi,Who Lost Russia? How the World Entered a New Cold War(London:Oneworld,2017),pp.152—207;Andrew Monaghan,Russian State Mobilisation: Moving the Country onto a War Footing(Chatham House:Russia and Eurasia Programme,May 2016),pp.7—14.

106. “The President's News Conference with President Vladimir V.Putin of Russia in Strelna,Russia”,15 July 2006,Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George W.Bush, vol.2(Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,2010),pp.1394—1401:p.1401.

107. Keith Gessen,“The Quiet Americans Behind the US—Russia Imbroglio”,New York Times Magazine,8 May 2018.

108. Joshua R.Itzkowitz Shifrinson,“Deal or No Deal? The End of the Cold War and the US Offer to Limit NATO Expansion”,International Security 40:4(2016),pp.7—44.

109. NSC Paper,“Moving Toward NATO Expansion”,4 October 1994,Clinton Presidential Library,pp.2016—2140.

110. President Bill Clinton to Strobe Talbott,The Russia Hand: A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy(New York:Random House,2002),p.202.

111. Ivan Krastev and Leonard Benardo,“No Reset:The Unquiet American”,The American Interest,4 February 2019.


(1) 1946年,美国驻苏联外交官乔治·凯南应华盛顿的要求,写了一份报告,分析俄罗斯人的历史文化基因及其对苏联外交政策的影响。这份被称为“长电报”的报告,后来被凯南以匿名方式发表。这份报告深深地影响了美国的对苏政策,乔治·凯南亦因此被称为“冷战之父”。——译者注

(2) “纳恩-卢格减少威胁合作计划”是由美国提供经费和技术来处置和保证大规模杀伤性材料的安全,尤其是处理和保证原苏联加盟国的大规模杀伤性武器安全的计划。——译者注

(3) 懦夫博弈,又被称为“胆小鬼博弈”“鹰鸽博弈”。博弈原理是当两个参与者都不屈服,那么可能最坏的结果会发生,常常用于刻画一种骑虎难下的博弈局势。——译者注

(4) 罗斯福推论(Roosevelt Corollary)是20世纪初美国第26任总统西奥多·罗斯福对美国第5任总统詹姆斯·门罗宣布的“门罗主义”的最为重要的一次引申,它的核心是美国可以根据自己的逻辑任意武装干涉拉丁美洲,以实现“美洲是美国人的美洲”这一独霸西半球的野心。——译者注

(5) “新美国世纪计划”(Project for New American Century)创建于1997年,该机构的目标是建立美国治下的世界和平,所有其他国家都应该屈服于美国的领导和意志。——译者注