七、结 语
在后金融危机时代,国际投资及其全球治理的基本格局发生了重大变化。发达国家相互之间投资关系越来越被纳入国际投资机制约束,新兴大国越来越具有资本输出国与资本输入国双重混同身份,发达国家与新兴大国之间投资关系越来越具有互惠性质,经济危机和投资条约仲裁越来越促使发达国家、新兴大国以及其他发展中国家和转型经济国家反思新自由主义国际投资法律机制内在的严重失衡和不稳定性,但是,与此同时,在全球贸易与投资关系多边主义举步维艰之际,投资议题已被纳入双边、区域乃至元区域经济一体化协定的战略竞争格局。总体而言,国际投资的全球治理正在经历从新自由主义向内嵌自由主义的范式转型。
(本文编辑:饶攀)
Global Governance Of FDI In Post-Crisis Era:Trends,Implications And Causes
Wang Yanzhi Wang Fei
Abstract:In the post-crisis era,the global governance of international investment is undergoing major changes.FDIs among developed countries have been covered by international investment agreements(IIAs).The emerging powers are more and more becoming both large recipients and large home countries of FDI.Investment relations between developed and emerging developing countries are increasingly reciprocal in nature.Economic crisis and increasing ISDS cases urge developed countries,emerging developing countries and other developing countries and transition economies to reflect imbalance and instability inherent in neoliberal international legal regime investment.While multilateralism is in trouble,major great powers are racing to negotiate and conclude various bilateral,regional and metaregional FTAs,EPAs and other PTIAs involving investment chapters.BITs are still dominant,but regionalism in international investment law is on the rise.Trends of both investment and trade integration and investment and non-economic issues integration are growing.While IIAs are increasingly complex and diverse,IIAs balanced and aimed at sustainable development are becoming mainstream trend.High standard and balanced IIAs with investment liberalization,facilitation and transparency clauses are on the rise.There are more improvements in transparency but few improvements in inconsistency and unbalance in investment arbitration.There is a paradigm shift of global investment governance from neo-liberalism to embedded liberalism.
Key Words:International Financial Crisis;International Investment Law;Global Governance;Embedded Liberalism;Sustainable Development
【注释】
[1]本文系司法部2013年度国家法治与法学理论研究项目“后危机时代的全球治理与国际经济法的转型”(编号:13SFB2044);国家社会基金“国际关系与国际法跨学科研究”(编号:15BFX183)阶段性成果。
[2]王彦志,男,吉林舒兰人,吉林大学法学院副教授,经济学博士;王菲,女,甘肃兰州人,甘肃政法学院国际法专业硕士生。
[3]UNCTAD,The Rise of Regionalism in International Investment Policymaking:Consolidation or Complexity?12 June 2013.
[4]UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2010:Investing in a Low-Carbon Economy,United Nations,2010,pp.83~84;UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2012:Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies(UNCTAD/WIR/2012),5 July 2012,pp.84~88;UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2013:Global Value Chains:Investment and Trade for Development(UNCTAD/WIR/2013),27 June 2013,pp.103~107.
[5]UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2012:Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies(UNCTAD/WIR/2012),5 July 2012,pp.20~86.
[6]根据对180个国家和2309个投资协定(IIA)的统计分析,大约24%的双边投资关系受到不只一个投资协定的调整,也就是说,大约每4个投资协定就会与1个其他投资协定发生交叠,其中,至少9%包含了超过3个投资协定相互交叠的情形,因此,BIT与区域协定(这里是根据WTO第24条的统计,因此包含了两个国家或地区之间的协定)之间的交叠是非常广泛的。Wolfgang Alschner,Regionalism and Overlap in Investment Treaty Law:Towards Consolidation or Contradiction?Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.17,2014,pp.276~277.
[7]UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2010:Investing in a Low-Carbon Economy,United Nations,2010,p.83;UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2012:Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies(UNCTAD/WIR/2012),5 Jul 2012,p.84.
[8]张庆麟、张惟威:《〈里斯本条约〉对欧盟国际投资法律制度的影响》,载《武大国际法评论》2012年第15卷第1期;Wenhua Shan,Towards a Common European Community Policy on Investment Issues,Journal of World Investment,Vol.2,No.4,2001,pp.603~625;Wenhua Shan and Sheng Zhang,The Treaty of Lisbon:Half Way toward a Common Investment Policy,European Journal of International Law,Vol.21,No.4,2011,pp.1049~1073;Marc Bungenberg,Joern Griebel,Steffen Hindelang,eds.,International Investment Law and EU Law(European Yearbook of International Economic Law,Special Issue),Springer,2011.
[9]Wolfgang Alschner,Regionalism and Overlap in Investment Treaty Law:Towards Consolidation or Contradiction?Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.17,2014,pp.285~288.
[10]Wolfgang Alschner,Regionalism and Overlap in Investment Treaty Law:Towards Consolidation or Contradiction?Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.17,2014,pp.279~284.
[11]该协定第25条(与其他协定的关系)规定:“本协定的任何条款均不影响缔约一方在该缔约方与缔约另一方达成的、在本协定生效日存在且有效的任何双边投资协定下的权利和义务,包括给予缔约另一方投资者的待遇的相关权利和义务。注:各方确认,当缔约一方投资者与缔约另一方发生争议时,本协定的任何条款均不得解释为阻止投资者依赖该缔约双方达成的、投资者认为比本协定更优惠的双边投资协定。”
[12]例如,2009年东盟、澳大利亚、新西兰自由贸易协定规定了投资专章,2012年澳大利亚和马来西亚自由贸易协定也规定了投资专章,而且二者之间存在一些重要差别,例如前者规定了投资者与国家间争端(ISD)解决条款,后者没有规定ISD条款,而且这两个协定之间不是取代关系,而是并存关系。2009年协定第11章(投资)第27条(适用法律)规定,当一项请求在第20条(一缔约方投资者的请求)下被提出,仲裁庭应根据本协定、缔约方之间任何其他可适用的协定、任何可以适用于缔约方间关系的国际法规则以及任何可以适用的争端缔约方的国内法规则裁判争议问题。2009年协定第18章(最后条款)第2条(与其他协定的关系)第1款至第3款重申并称本协定不得减损WTO协定以及本协定缔约方是其当事方的任何其他协定下的权利和义务,还称本协定与本协定缔约方是其当事方的任何其他协定之间如有不一致,缔约方应立即磋商以达成彼此满意的解决,2012年协定第21章(最后条款)第21.2条作出了与此相同的规定。
[13]UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2012:Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies(UNCTAD/WIR/2012),5 July.,2012,p.86;UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2013:Global Value Chains:Investment and Trade for Development(UNCTAD/WIR/2013),27 Jun 2013,pp.105~107;Rainer Hofmann,Stephan W.Schill and Christian J.Tams eds.,Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements:From Recalibration to Reintegration,Nomos,2013.
[14]张琳:《中国区域自由贸易协定的新发展》,载《东方早报》2015年2月10日。
[15]UNCTAD,World Investment Report 2013:Global Value Chains:Investment and Trade for Development,2013,p.190.
[16]Robert Echandi and Maree Newson,The Influence of International Investment Patterns in International Economic Law Rulemaking:A Preliminary Sketch,Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.17,2014,pp.862~864.
[17]Roger P.Alford,The Convergence of International Trade and Investment Arbitration,Santa Clara Journal of International Law,Vol.12,No.1,2013,pp.38~40.
[18]Rainer Hofmann,Stephan W.Schill and Christian J.Tams,Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements:From Recalibration to Reintegration,in Rainer Hofmann,Stephan W.Schill and Christian J.Tams eds.,Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements:From Recalibration to Reintegration,Nomos,2013,p.14.
[19]Tim Büthe and Helen V.Milner,Foreign Direct Investment and Institutional Diversity in Trade Agreements:Credibility,Commitment,and Economic Flows in the Developing World,1971~2007,World Politics,Vol.66,No.1,2014,pp.88~122.
[20]Raymond Hicks&Kris Johnson,When a BIT Just Isn’t Enough:Why We See Investment Chapters in Preferential Trade Agreements,The Politics of Foreign Direct Investment Conference Paper,2014.
[21]1998年OECD多边投资协定(MAI)文本草案中的国家间争端解决也引入了类似WTO中的授权报复条款,但因其只是单一议题的投资协定,因此只是同一部门内的报复(中止适用该多边投资协定中规定的义务,且不得中止一般待遇和征收等义务),而不是交叉报复。
[22]但并不都是如此。例如,2015年日本与蒙古EPA第10.20条规定,本协定终止后,第10章(投资)以及与第10章直接有关的条款,应自本协定终止时起继续有效10年。
[23]Tim Büthe and Helen V.Milner,Foreign Direct Investment and Institutional Diversity in Trade Agreements:Credibility,Commitment,and Economic Flows in the Developing World,1971~2007,World Politics,Vol.66,No.1,2014,pp.88~122.
[24]Rainer Hofmann,Stephan W.Schill,Christian J.Tams,Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements:From Recalibration to Reintegration,in Rainer Hofmann,Stephan W.Schill,Christian J.Tams eds.,Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements:From Recalibration to Reintegration,Nomos,2013,p.21.
[25]参见王彦志:《国际投资法体制变革初探》,载《国际经济法学刊》2011年第11卷第3期。
[26]其中,美国政府为了回应2002年贸易促进授权法案的要求,在2002年以来的自由贸易协定投资专章中进一步体现和发展了这些重要变化。
[27]部分内容参考和借用了笔者此前的论文,参见王彦志:《国际投资法体制变革初探》,载《国际经济法学刊》2011年第3期;王彦志:《投资者与国家间投资争端仲裁机制的废除:国际实践与中国立场》,载《中国国际法年刊》(2012年卷)。
[28]Stephan W.Schill and Marc Jacob,Trends in International Investment Agreements 2010—2011:The Increasing Complexity of International Investment Law,in Karl P.Sauvant ed.,Yearbook on International Investment Law&Policy 2011—2012,Oxford University Press,2013,pp.141~179.
[29]Lise Johnson and Lisa Sachs,International Investment Agreements,2011~2012:A Review of Trends and New Approaches,in Andrea Bjorklund ed.,Yearbook on International Investment Law&Policy 2012~2013,Oxford University Press,2014,p.220.
[30]M.Sornarajah教授是该委员会成员,据称该委员会可能建议厄瓜多尔终止其余的BIT,尽管Sornarajah教授认为这可能给该国带来其不愿看到的违背国际义务的风险,但是他相信BIT与吸引外国投资之间没有关系。Jonathan C.Hamilton&Francisco X.Jijón,Ecuador Treaties and International Ramifications,http://www.latinarbitrationlaw.com/ecuador-treaties-and-international-ramifications/.
[31]UNCTAD,Denunciation of the ICSID Convention and BITs:Impact on Investor-State Claims,IIA Notes Issue No.2 December 2010,p.1,note3;Jonathan C.Hamilton,Omar E.García-Bolívar,and Hernando Otero eds.,Latin American Investment Protections:Comparative Perspectives on Laws,Treaties,and Disputes for Investors,States and Counsel,Leiden;Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publisher,2012,pp.252~254;Francisco X.Jijón,Ecuador Evaluates Investment Treaty Framework,http://www.latinarbitrationlaw.com/ecuador-evaluates-investment-treaty-framework/.
[32]Aldo Orellana López Bolivia denounces its Bilateral Investment Treaties,http://alainet.org/active/75151,下载日期:2014年7月4日。
[33]Christian R.Urresti,Bolivia:New Investment Law Brings Debate Over Arbitration and Conciliation,The Network:Business at Berkeley Law,May 14,2014,http://thenetwork.berkeleylawblogs.org/2014/05/14/bolivia-new-investment-law-bringsdebate-over-arbitration-and-conciliation-part-1-of-3/;Martin Dietrich Brauch,Opening the Door to Foreign Investment?An Analysis of Bolivia’s NewInvestment Promotion Law,Investment Treaty News Quarterly,Vol.5,No.3,August 12,2014,pp.9~12.
[34]See Dr Rob Davies,the Minister of Trade and Industry,Speech at the South African launch of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)Investment Policy Framework for sustainable development at the University of The Witwatersrand,26 Jul 2012,http://www.info.gov.za/speech/Dynamic Action?pageid=461&sid=29391&tid=77861;Xavier Carim,Deputy Director General,Department of Trade and Industry,South Africa,A South African Perspective on International Investment Agreements,at the WTO Public Forum,25 September 2012,Geneva,http://www.southcentre.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1885%3Asb69&catid=144%3Asouth-bulletin-individual-articles&Itemid=287&lang=en(last visit on November 22,2012.);Peter Leon,Jonathan Veeran and Erin Warmington,South Africa Declines To Renew Bilateral Investment Treaties With European Union Member States,October 5,2012,http://www.mondaq.com/x/199586/international+trade+investment/South+Africa+Declines+To+Renew+Bilateral+Investment+Treaties+With+European+Union+Member+States(last visit on November 22,2012.);Xavier Carim,Update on the Review of Bilateral Investment Treaties in South Africa,15 February 2013.
[35]关于该法案草案的评析,参见朱伟东:《南非〈投资促进与保护法案〉评析》,载《西亚非洲》2014年第2期。
[36]Mustaqeem de Gama,Draft Bill No Threat to Foreign Investors in South Africa,Business Day,April 01,2014.
[37]Anthea Jeffery,Bill Goes Far Beyond Bilateral Trade,Business Day,February 25,2014;Jana Marais,Diplomats Break Silence on Investment Bill,Business Day,March 09,2014;Peter Draper and Azwimphele Langalanga,Foreigners fear SA Intends to Expropriate Their Assets,Business Day,April 01,2014.
[38]Termination Bilateral Investment Treaty,http://indonesia.nlembassy.org/organization/departments/economic-affairs/termination-bilateral-investment-treaty.html;Ben Bland and Shawn Donnan,Indonesia to Terminate More than 60 Bilateral Investment Treaties,March 26,2014.
[39]Michael Ewing-Chow and Junianto James Losari,Indonesia is Letting Its Bilateral Treaties Lapse So As to Renegotiate Better Ones,April 15,2014;Arif Havas Oegroseno,Revamping Bilateral Treaties,Jakarta Post,July 07,2014,Page 6;Rick Beckmann,Remco Smorenburg,Jessica de Rooij,Kayla Feld,BIT by BIT in Indonesia:Signs of a Push-back on Foreign Investment,October 2014,http://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/publications/121386/bit-by-bit-in-indonesia.
[40]See Silvia Karina Fiezzoni,The Challenge of UNASUR Member Countries to Replace ICSID Arbitration,2 Beijing Law Review 134(2011).
[41]Silvia Karina Fiezzoni,UNASUR Arbitration Centre:The Present Situation and the Principal Characteristics of Ecuador’s Proposal,Investment Treaty News Quarterly,Vol.2,No.2,December 2011/January 2012,pp.6~7;UNASUR Experts progress in creation of the Center for Dispute Settlement Investment Insights,September 26,2014,http://www.cancilleria.gob.ec/unasur-experts-progress-in-creation-of-the-center-fordispute-settlement-investment-insights/?lang=en;UNASUR Experts consolidated text for the creation of the Center for Dispute Settlement Investment Insights,November 7,2014,http://www.cancilleria.gob.ec/unasur-experts-consolidated-text-for-the-creation-ofthe-center-for-dispute-settlement-investment-insights/?lang=en.
[42]See Ser Myo-ja and Jung Hyo-sik,U.S.Says It Won’t Renegotiate FTA’S ISD provision,Korea Joong Ang Daily,November 10,2011,http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2943957;Lee Ho-jeong and Song Suhyun,Lone Star’s suit revives controversy over ISD,Korea Joong Ang Daily,November 23,2012,http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2962809&cloc=joongangdaily%7Chome%7Cnewslist1(last visited on November 26,2012.)
[43]Jack H.Park,Korea,US Evaluate Current State of FTA,Business Korea,26 November 2014.
[44]Mr.M.Daniel Godinho,The Brazilian experience with IIAs,IIA Conference,World Investment Forum 2014:Investingin Sustainable Development,16 October 2014;Acordo de Cooperação e Facilitação de Investimentos,http://www.desenvolvimento.gov.br/sitio/interna/interna.php?area=5&menu=4528.
[45]Brasil e Chile discutem negociação de acordo de cooperação e facilitação de investimentos,http://www.mdic.gov.br/sitio/interna/noticia.php?area=1¬icia=13440,下载日期:2014年10月14日;Acordo de Cooperação e Facilitação de Investimentos,http://www.desenvolvimento.gov.br/sitio/interna/interna.php?area=5&menu=4528.
[46]Gillard Government Trade Policy Statement:Trading Our Way to More Jobs and Prosperity,April 2011,http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/trade/trading-our-way-tomore-jobs-and-prosperity.html,last visited on 22 November 2012.
[47]ISDS-Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade_aspx,http://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/topics/Pages/isds.aspx.
[48]Leon Trakman,The Status of Investor-State Arbitration:Resolving Investment Disputes Under the Transpacific Partnership Agreement,Journal of World Trade,Vol.48,No.1,2014,pp.1~29;Leon Trakman,Instituting Investment Claims Under the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement,in Wenhua Shan(ed),China and International Investment Law,Martinus Nijhoff,2014,pp 108~214.
[49]澳大利亚与马来西亚FTA也没有规定双方将进一步谈判投资者与国家间争端解决事项,但是,2009年澳大利亚、新西兰和东盟自由贸易协定(AANZFTA)第11章(投资)包含了ISDS条款,而2012年澳大利亚与马来西亚FTA第18章(最后条款)规定本协定不影响缔约方在WTO和其他国际协定中的权利和义务,因此,在澳大利亚和马来西亚之间的双边投资关系中,仍然可以利用AANZFTA中的ISDS条款。澳大利亚与日本EPA第14.19条规定,双方将于本协定生效后第5年或双方另行约定的某一年谈判建立投资者与国家间争端解决机制的事宜,此外,如果澳大利亚在本协定生效后与其他国家缔结了包含ISDS条款的多边或双边协定,那么,双方也应该着手谈判建立本协定的ISDS条款事宜。既然澳大利亚后来已经在其他FTA中订入了ISDS,那么将来澳大利亚和日本也将着手谈判订入ISDS条款。对此,有人讽刺说,这样一来,澳大利亚政府在个案情形下决定是否包含ISDS的政策立场实际上就变成了在每个情形下都订入ISDS了。Kyla Tienhaara China free trade:is there a devil in the detail?http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-17/tienhaara-will-there-be-a-devil-in-the-detail-of-the-china-fta/5896534,下载日期:2014年11月17日。
[50]主权债务既涉及投资者保护,又涉及发债国应对财政或经济危机,在金融危机或经济危机背景下,主权债务的债权人是否可以作为投资者享受投资条约保护越来越受到重视。迄今,已经有几起案件直接涉及阿根廷和希腊在经济危机背景下的主权债务重组或违约问题。UNCTAD,Sovereign Debt Restructuring and International Investment Agreements,IIA Issue Note No.2,July 2011;Giovanna a Beccara and others v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/5;Giovanni Alemanni and others v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/8;Giordano Alpi and others v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/08/9;Poštovábanka,a.s.and ISTROKAPITAL SE v.Greece(ICSID Case No.ARB/13/8).
[51]胡加祥:《国际投资准入前国民待遇法律问题探析——兼论上海自贸区负面清单》,载《上海交通大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2014年第1期。
[52]UNCTAD,Recent Trends in IIAs and ISDS,IIA Issues Note No.1,February 2015,p.3.
[53]2012年中国和加拿大BIT第33条的一般例外广泛包括了文化产业例外、若干GATT第20条例外、金融审慎措施例外、根本安全例外等。
[54]例如,美国FTA的环境专章和劳工专章都规定了详细的环境和劳工法律义务的实施、私人申诉和国家间争端解决程序。在2004年美国与中美洲共同市场及多米尼加共和国FTA下,美国与圭地马拉就圭地马拉执行国内劳动法、保护劳工权益不利而发生争端,因磋商没有能够解决争端,目前已经设立专家组解决该项争端。
[55]基于UNCITRAL仲裁规则裁判的投资者与国家间争端仲裁案件数量仅次于ICSID公约而位居第二。(https://www.daowen.com)
[56]The Legitimacy Crisis in Investment Treaty Arbitration:Privatizing Public International Law Through Inconsistent Decisions,Fordham Law Review,Vol.73,No.4,pp.1521~1625,2005;Gus Van Harten,Investment Treaty Arbitration and Public Law,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007.
[57]关于2008年以来的投资仲裁实践,Latest Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Monitor No.1,2009](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2009/6/),10 June 2009;Latest Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Issues Note,No.1,2010](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2010/3),25 May 2010;Latest Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Issues Note,No.1,2011](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2011/3),24 March 2011;Latest Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Issues Note,No.1,2012](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2012/10),16 April 2012;Recent Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Issues Note,No.1,2013](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/PCB/2013/3),10 April 2013;Recent Developments in Investor-State Dispute Settlement[IIA Issue Note,No.1,2014](UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/PCB/2014/3),7 April 2014.
[58]Churchill Mining PLC and Planet Mining Pty Ltd v.Republic of Indonesia(formerly Churchill Mining PLC v.Republic of Indonesia)(ICSID Case No.ARB/12/14 and 12/40),Procedural Order No.3 on Provisional Measures,4 March 2013.
[59]Telefónica S.A.v.United Mexican States,ICSID Case No.ARB(AF)/12/4,Procedural Order No.1,Jul 8,2013.
[60]Telefónica S.A.v.United Mexican States,ICSID Case No.ARB(AF)/12/4,Dissent to Procedural Order No.1,Jul 8,2013.
[61]UNCTAD,Transparency,UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment Agreements II,United Nations,2012,pp.50~51.
[62]相对而言,与不受习惯国际法最低待遇标准的FET相比,NAFTA第11章仲裁庭对于FET义务要素的认定更加严格和狭窄,多数NAFTA仲裁庭对于尊重投资者正当期待限定得比较严格,绝大多数NAFTA仲裁庭认为透明度本身不是独立的FET义务要素但在判定是否违反其他义务要素时有一定意义,迄今所有NAFTA仲裁庭都认为善意本身不是独立的FET义务要素而只是认定是否违反其他要素时的指导原则,以国籍为基础的非歧视一般不构成FET的义务要素,而所有NAFTA仲裁庭都认为不得任意武断、不得拒绝司法和不得违反正当程序则是FET的毫不含糊的义务要素。此外,多数NAFTA仲裁庭强调要达到较高的严重程度才能构成违反FET义务。Patrick Dumberry,The Fair and Equitable Treatment Standard:A Guide to NAFTA Case Law on Article 1105,Kluwer Law International,2013,pp.315~322.
[63]Rumeli Telekom A.S.and Telsim Mobil Telekomunikasyon Hizmetleri A.S.v.Republic of Kazakhstan,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/16(Turkey-Kazakhstan BIT),Award,29 July 2008;Paushok et al v.Mongolia,Award on Jurisdiction and Liability,28 April 2011;Deutsche Bank AG v.Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka(ICSID Case No.ARB/09/2),Award,31 October 2012(强调作为自治待遇标准的FET与作为习惯国际法最低待遇标准的FET没有实质性的不同);Bosh International,Inc and B&P Ltd Foreign Investments Enterprise v.Ukraine(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/11),Award,25 October 2012;Railroad Development Corporation v.Republic of Guatemala(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/23),Award,29 June 2012;TECO Guatemala Holdings,LLC v.Republic of Guatemala(ICSID Case No.ARB/10/23),Award,19 December 2013;Inmaris Perestroika Sailing Maritime Services Gmb H and Others v.Ukraine(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/8),Award,1 March 2012.
[64]Total S.A.v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/04/01,Decision on Liability,21 December 2010;Paushok et al v.Mongolia,Award on Jurisdiction and Liability,28 April 2011;Impregilo S.p.A v.Argentina,Award,21 June 2011;Electrabel S.A.v.Republic of Hungary(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/19),Decision on Jurisdiction,Applicable Law and Liability,30 November 2012;Ulysseas,Inc.v.The Republic of Ecuador(UNCITRAL),Final Award,12 June 2012;Toto Costruzioni Generali S.p.A.v.The Republic of Lebanon(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/12),Award,7 June 2012;Mobil Investments Canada Inc.and Murphy Oil Corporation v.Canada[ICSID Case No.ARB(AF)/07/4],Decision on Liability and Principles of Quantum,22 May 2012;Railroad Development Corporation v.Republic of Guatemala(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/23),Award,29 June 2012;Ioan Micula,Viorel Micula,S.C.European Food S.A,S.C.Starmill S.R.L.and S.C.Multipack S.R.L.v.Romania(ICSID Case No.ARB/05/20),Final Award,11 December 2013.
[65]Mobil Investments Canada Inc.and Murphy Oil Corporation v.Canada(ICSID Case No.ARB(AF)/07/4),Decision on Liability and on Principles of Quantum,22 May 2012;TECO Guatemala Holdings,LLC v.Republic of Guatemala(ICSID Case No.ARB/10/23),Award,19 December 2013.
[66]Occidental Petroleum Corporation and Occidental Exploration and Production Company v.The Republic of Ecuador(ICSID Case No.ARB/06/11),Award,5 October 2012.
[67]El Paso Energy International Company v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/15,Award,31 October 2011.
[68]Glamis Gold v.United States,Award,8 June 2009.
[69]Merrill&Ring v.Canada,Award,31 March 2010.
[70]Chevron v.Ecuador(I),UNCITRAL,PCA Case No.34877,Partial Award on the Merits,30 March 2010;Mr.Franck Charles Arif v.Republic of Moldova(ICSID Case No.ARB/11/23),Award,8 April 2013.
[71]Helnan v.Egypt,Decision on Annulment,14 June 2010.
[72]Rumeli Telekom A.S.and Telsim Mobil Telekomunikasyon Hizmetleri A.S.v.Republic of Kazakhstan,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/16,Award,Jul 29,2008;Glamis Gold v.United States,UNCITRAL,Award,8 June 2009;Bayindir Insaat Turizm Ticaret Ve Sanayi v.Pakistan,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/29,Award,27 August 2009;AWG v.Argentina,Decision on Liabilty,30 July 2010;Chemtura v.Canada,Award,2 August 2010;Spyridon Roussalis,v.Romania,Award,7 December 2011;El Paso v.Argentina,Award,31 October 2011(单纯丧失投资价值并不必然构成间接征收,必须是对投资丧失了控制,才构成间接征收);Burlington Resources Inc.v.Republic of Ecuador(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/5),Decision on Liability,14 December 2012(重要的是政府措施是否构成了实质性剥夺,实质性剥夺不是指丧失了管理或控制权,而是指作为整体的投资丧失了经济价值或经济生存力,例如赚取商业回报的能力);Inmaris Perestroika Sailing Maritime Services Gmb H and Others v.Ukraine(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/8),Award,1 March 2012(重要的是对投资价值的剥夺是不是永久的,而不是政府管制禁令是不是临时的).
[73]Continental Casualty Company v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/9(United States Argentina BIT),Award,5 September 2008(应该区分对财产的实质性影响导致应予赔偿的间接征收和为了公共利益而不可避免的、可容忍的、非歧视性的、合比例的、无须赔偿的典型的政府管制);RosInvest v.Russia,Final Award,12 September 2010;Total S.A.v.Argentina,Decision on Liability,21 December 2010(除了考察是否实质性地剥夺了投资者投资价值,还应考察政府措施的合理性和合比例性,在本案中,阿根廷的管制措施是善意的,普遍适用的,根据其经济和货币紧急情况来看是合理的,也是与应对紧急情况的目的相称的或称合比例的,因此,不构成间接征收).
[74]National Grid plc v.The Argentine Republic,UNCITRAL,Award,3 November 2008;Suez and Vivendi v.Argentina,Decision on Liability,30 July 2010;Total S.A.v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/04/01,Decision on Liability,Dec 27,2010;Impregilo S.p.A v.Argentina,Award,21 June 2011;EDF International S.A.,SAUR International S.A.and León Participaciones Argentinas S.A.v.Argentine Republic(ICSID Case No.ARB/03/23),Award,11 June 2012(阿根廷没有举证其符合了习惯国际法下紧急情况抗辩的三个关键要素:其措施是唯一可行的,其自身没有促成紧急情况,其在条件具备时取消了紧急措施而回到了正常状态。而且,即使成功地援引了紧急情况抗辩,也不能免于支付赔偿的义务).
[75]El Paso v.Argentina,Award,31 October 2011.
[76]National Grid plc v.The Argentine Republic,UNCITRAL,Award,3 November 2008;Total S.A.v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/04/01,Decision on Liability,Dec 27,2010.
[77]阿根廷2001—2002年危机涉及维持公共秩序和关键安全利益(包括经济危机情形),美国和阿根廷BIT第11条不是自我判断的(应受投资条约仲裁庭审查),阿根廷采取的措施是“必要的”(不是“不可或缺的”,也不是“有助于”,而是“合理可得的、限制性更小的替代措施”),阿根廷采取的措施曾被认为是健全的并且曾有利于阿根廷经济发展(尽管如果当年不采取IMF等建议的措施就可能避免经济危机),阿根廷可以援引第11条紧急情况而排除其违反FET义务和(产生于合同义务的)保护伞条款义务的违法性和责任,而只需承担LETEs重构导致的违反FET义务的责任。Continental Casualty Company v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/9(United States Argentina BIT),Award,5 September 2008.
[78]Sempra Energy International v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/02/16(Argentina-United States BIT),Decision on Annulment,29 June 2010[因为仲裁庭错误地适用了习惯国际法(国际法委员会国家责任条款草案),而没有适用BIT,构成明显越权];Enron v.Argentina,ad hoc Committee,Decision on Annulment,30 July 2010(因为仲裁庭在适用习惯国际法和BIT第11条时,没有适用国际法委员会国家责任条款草案,而适用了专家意见,构成明显越权,且没有述明理由).
[79]Ioan Micula,Viorel Micula,S.C.European Food S.A,S.C.Starmill S.R.L.and S.C.Multipack S.R.L.v.Romania(ICSID Case No.ARB/05/20),Final Award,11 December 2013.
[80]Burlington Resources v.Ecuador,Decision on Jurisdiction,2 June 2010.
[81]SGS SociétéGénérale de Surveillance S.A.v.The Republic of Paraguay(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/29),Award,10 February 2012.
[82]Bosh International,Inc and B&P Ltd Foreign Investments Enterprise v.Ukraine(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/11),Award,25 October 2012.
[83]Hamester v.Ghana,Award,18 June 2010.
[84]El Paso v.Argentina,Award,31 October 2011;Burlington Resources Inc.v.Republic of Ecuador(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/5),Decision on Liability,14 December 2012.
[85]Patricio Granéand Brian Bombassaro,Umbrella Clause Decisions:The Class of 2012 and a Remapping of the Jurisprudence,http://kluwerarbitrationblog.com/blog/2013/01/17/umbrella-clause-decisions-the-class-of-2012-and-a-remapping-of-thejurisprudence/,下载日期:2013年1月17日。
[86]在此之前,关于MFN是否适用于争端解决事项的分歧就已经存在。有的仲裁庭认定MFN适用于争端解决事项,有的仲裁庭则认定MFN不适用于争端解决事项。2000年Maffezini诉Spain案仲裁庭根据该案基础条约MFN条款适用于“本协定所有事项”的表述认定MFN适用于争端解决程序事项,2004年Siemens诉Argentina案仲裁庭根据该案基础条约及其议定书MFN条款适用于投资“活动”的一般表述认定MFN适用于争端解决程序事项,而Salini诉Jordan案仲裁庭则根据该案基础条约MFN条款适用于“投资”的一般表述认定,MFN不适用于争端解决事项。Emilio Agustín Maffezini v.The Kingdom of Spain,ICSID Case No.ARB/97/7,Decision of the Tribunal on Objections to Jurisdiction,January 25,2000;Siemens A.G.v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/02/8,Decision on Jurisdiction,August 3,2004;Salini Costruttori S.p.A.and Italstrade S.p.A.v.The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,ICSID Case No.ARB/02/13,Decision on Jurisdiction,9 November 2004.
[87]Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Award,21 June 2011;Abaclat et al v.Argentina,Decision on Jurisdiction,4 August 2011;Hochtief v.Argentina,Decision on Jurisdiction,24 October 2011;Teinver S.A.,Transportes de Cercanías S.A.and Autobuses Urbanos del Sur S.A.v.The Argentine Republic(ICSID Case No.ARB/09/1),Decision on Jurisdiction,21 December 2012;Garanti Koza LLP v.Turkmenistan(ICSID Case No.ARB/11/20),Decision on the Objection to Jurisdiction for Lack of Consent,3 July 2013.
[89]Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Award,June 21,2011;Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Decision of the ad hoc Committee on the Application for Annulment,January 24,2014.
[90]Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Concurring and Dissenting Opinion of Professor Brigitte Stern,June 21,2011.
[91]Daimler Financial Services AG v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/1,Award,August 22,2012;Daimler Financial Services AG v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/1,Dissenting Opinion of Judge Charles N.Brower,August 15,2012;Daimler Financial Services AG v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/1,Opinion of Professor Domingo Bello Janeiro,August 16,2012.
[92]Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic案仲裁庭多数仲裁员也认为,MFN适用于争端解决程序事项方面,这已经构成了主导性的一般判例法,但是这个问题仍然存在争议,有些仲裁庭对此持强烈保留态度,主流判例法尚未被普遍接受,而Brigitte Stern则指出,因为支持MFN适用于争端解决程序事项的仲裁员高度集中,因此,即便从仲裁庭数量来看,多数仲裁庭支持MFN适用于争端解决程序事项,但从仲裁员数量来看,多数仲裁员却持反对态度。Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Award,June 21,2011;Impregilo S.p.A.v.Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/17,Concurring and Dissenting Opinion of Professor Brigitte Stern,June 21,2011.
[93]但是,在涉及对人或对物等管辖要求(而非等待期、首先诉诸当地救济等准入条件)时,多数仲裁庭认为,MFN条款不能被用来引入更宽松或更广阔的管辖要求。UNCTAD,Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment,UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment Agreements II,United Nations,2010.
[94]Salini Costruttori S.p.A.and Italstrade S.p.A.v.Morocco(ICSID Case No.ARB/00/4),Decision on Jurisdiction,23 July 2001.
[95]Biwater Gauff Ltd v.Tanzania,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/22(United Kingdom-Tanzania BIT),Award,18 July 2008;Malaysian Historical Salvors Sdn,Bhd v.Malaysia,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/10,Decision on the Application for Annulment,16 April 2009;Phoenix Action,Ltd v.The Czech Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/06/5,Award,15 April 2009;Saba Fakes v.Turkey,Award,14 July 2010;GEA Group Aktiengesellschaft v.Ukraine,ICSID Case No.ARB/08/16,Award,31 March 2011;Malicorp Limited v.Arab Republic of Egypt,ICSID Case No.ARB/08/18,Award,7 February 2011;Electrabel S.A.v.Republic of Hungary(ICSID Case No.ARB/07/19),Decision on Jurisdiction,Applicable Law and Liability,30 November 2012;Deutsche Bank AG v.Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka(ICSID Case No.ARB/09/2),Award,31 October 2012;Quiborax S.A.,Non Metallic Minerals S.A.and Allan Fosk Kaplún v.Plurinational State of Bolivia(ICSID Case No.ARB/06/2),Decision on Jurisdiction,27 September 2012;Ambiente Ufficio S.p.A.and others v.Argentine Republic(formerly Giordano Alpi and others v.Argentine Republic)(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/9),Decision on Jurisdiction and Admissibility,8 February 2013;KT Asia Investment Group B.V.v.Republic of Kazakhstan(ICSID Case No.ARB/09/8),Award,17 October 2013.
[96]Romak S.A v.Uzbekistan,PCA Case No.AA280,Award,26 November 2009;Pantechniki S.A.v.Albania,ICSID Case No.ARB/07/21,Award,30 July 2009;Alps Finance and Trade AG v.Slovak Republic,UNCITRAL,Award,5 March 2011;White Industries Australia Limited v.India,UNCITRAL,Final Award,30 November 2011;Giovanna a Beccara and Others v.Argentine Republic,(also known as Abaclat et al v.Argentina),ICSID Case No.ARB/07/5,Decision on Jurisdiction,4 August 2011;Caratube International Oil Company LLP v.The Republic of Kazakhstan(ICSID Case No.ARB/08/12),Award,5 June 2012;Apotex Inc.v.The Government of the United States of America(UNCITRAL),Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility,14 June 2013;Philip Morris Brands Sàrl,Philip Morris Products S.A.and Abal Hermanos S.A.v.Oriental Republic of Uruguay(formerly FTR Holding SA,Philip Morris Products S.A.and Abal Hermanos S.A.v.Oriental Republic of Uruguay)(ICSID Case No.ARB/10/7),Decision on Jurisdiction,2 July 2013.
[97]对于投资条约仲裁的捍卫,see Charles N.Brower and Stephan W.Schill,Is Arbitration a Threat or a Boon to the Legitimacy of International Investment Law?Chicago Journal of International Law,Vol.9,No.2,2009,pp.471~498;Charles N.Brower and Sadie Blanchard,From‘Dealing in Virtue’to‘Profiting from Injustice’:Tending Toward the Re-Statification of International Investment Dispute Resolution,2013 Harvard International Law Journal(Volume 55)Online Symposium Keynote Address,January 2014;Charles N.Brower and Sadie Blanchard,What’s in a Meme?The Truth about Investor-State Arbitration:Why It Need Not,and Must Not,Be Repossessed by States,52 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 689(2014).
[98]参见王彦志:《新自由主义国际投资机制初探——以国际机制理论为视角》,载《国际关系与国际法学刊》2011年第1卷。
[99]参见王彦志:《国际投资法体制变革初探》,载《国际经济法学刊》2011年第18卷第3期。
[100]此外,缔约国和非缔约国的国内法院也以不同形式介入了投资条约是否违宪和ISDS仲裁裁决是否应被撤销的国内司法评审过程。
[101]关于内嵌和内嵌自由主义,参见Karl Polanyi,The Great Transformation:The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time,2nd ed.,Beacon Press,2001;John Gerard Ruggie,International Regimes,Transactions,and Change:Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,International Organization,Vol.36,No.2,1982,pp.379~415.
[102]参见漆彤、余茜:《从新自由主义到嵌入式自由主义——论晚近国际投资法的范式转移》,载《国际关系与国际法学刊》2014年卷。
[103]徐崇利:《新兴国家崛起与构建国际经济新秩序——以中国的路径选择为视角》,载《中国社会科学》2012年第10期。
[104]UNCTAD,Towards A New Generation of International Investment Policies:UNCTAD’’s Fresh Approach to Multilateral Investment Policy-Making,Updated in light of the World Investment Report 2013,IIA Issues Note No.5,July 2013.
[105]Simon Lester,Liberalization or Litigation?Time to Rethink the International Investment Regime,Policy Analysis No.730,July 8,2013.
[106]Daniel J.Ikenson,A Compromise to Advance the Trade Agenda:Purge Negotiations of Investor-State Dispute Settlement,Free Trade Bulletin No.57,March 4,2014.
[107]John Danilovich,Ditching Investor-State Dispute Settlement May Come at Quite a Cost,Financial Times,February 9,2015.
[108]The Honorable Charles N.Brower&Sadie Blanchard,What’s in a Meme?The Truth about Investor-State Arbitration:Why It Need Not,and Must Not,Be Repossessed by States,Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,Vol.52,No.3,2014,pp.689~777;Charles N.Brower and Sadie Blanchard,From“Dealing in Virtue”to“Profiting from Injustice”:The Case Against“Re-Statification”of Investment Dispute Settlement,2013 Harvard International Law Journal Symposium Keynote Address,Harvard International Law Journal Online,Vol.55,2014,pp.45~59;Stephen M.Schwebel,In Defense of Bilateral Investment Treaties,Columbia FDI Perspectives,No.135,November 24,2014;Charles N Brower and Shashank P Kumar,Investomercial Arbitration:Whence Cometh It?What Is It?Whither Goeth It?,ICSID Review,Vol.30,No.1(2015),pp.35~55.
[109]See Karl Polanyi,The Great Transformation:The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time,2nd ed.,Beacon Press,2001.
[110]John Gerard Ruggie,International Regimes,Transactions,and Change:Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,International Organization,Vol.36,No.2,1982,p.388.
[111]David Schneiderman,Resisting Economic Globalization:Critical Theory and International Investment Law,Palgrave Macmillan,2013,pp.4~17.
[112]JoséEnrique Alvarez,Return of the State,20 Minnesota Journal of International Law 223(2011).
[113]JoséEnrique Alvarez,The Once and Future Foreign Investment Regime,in Looking to the Future:Essays on International Law in Honor of W.Michael Reisman,Mahnoush Arsanjani,Jacob Katz Cogan,Robert D.Sloane and Siegried Wiessner,eds.,Martinus Nijhoff,2010,p.640;JoséEnrique Alvarez,The Public International Law Regime Governing International Investment,344 Recueil des cours 301(2011),pp.493~494.
[114]JoséEnrique Alvarez,The Public International Law Regime Governing International Investment,344 Recueil des cours 301(2011),pp.493~494.
[115]例如,2013年中国政府工作报告没有提到此种政策动向,经过长期谈判而于2012年达成的中国和加拿大BIT也没有接受投资准入国民待遇。
[116]胡舒立:《新一轮“开放促改革”之要义》,载财新《新世纪》2013年第13期;胡舒立:《上海自贸区的改革深意》,载财新《新世纪》周刊第38期;胡舒立:《寻求“以开放促改革”的新契机》,载财新《新世纪》2013年第44期。