本章结论
使用“地缘政治和经济战略动态分析”研究方法来探讨权力关系,得以印证我们谈论的这四个美国政策是如何产生或塑造了在刚果(金)的四种类型的政权(1982—2014年)。这一章具体分析了蒙博托政权、老卡比拉政权和小卡比拉政权——过渡政府,是由一名主席和四个副总统治理的“一加四”(1+4)系统)和民选政府(2006年和2011年的),这两个——有关我们谈论的这四个美国政策,确定了在刚果(金)经历了的这四个国家各种形式之间的联系,并发现了一个共同的趋势。
共同的趋势是刚果(金)已经没有选择,只好把自己融入全球经济和金融结构。一方面,鉴于国家矿产资源丰富这一事实,没有它,全球经济结构将崩溃,尤其是美国的全球力量, 刚果人民坚信,在一个负责任的国家的努力下,即能把国家和人民的利益放在第一的努力下,刚果(金)必须行使其作为一个国家的主权,就其自身而言建立自己的规则和标准来应对世界其他地区。另一方面,在刚果(金),西方列强的政策旨在有一个弱的、屈从的,在必要的时候一个不稳定的国家,这样他们就可以很容易地剥削,并窃取其自然资源。这四个美国对刚果(金)的政策(1982—2014年)是我们研究的对象,因为这些政策与在此期间的刚果(金)资源战争有关。
到目前为止,由联合国、 西方媒体、 西方学者和政策制定者、 西方非政府组织和西方国家政府对刚果(金)的情况进行的分析只专注于内部因素,这正是政治和经济不稳定的主要来源,并与在刚果(金)的权力的合法性或它的缺乏有关。
然而,必须认真审查在全球系统中的经济和政治关系的假设, 以及这些可以如何被审查、复审或重新看,以这样的方式来达到一个新的范式的转变,将迎来刚果(金)的民主和发展概念的新认识。就是来看看我们已经成为全球村的世界的权力中心在哪里,也看看这些权利中心留给“贫穷”的非洲国家,如刚果(金),如何少多样化其经济和贸易伙伴(零和博弈)。套用津巴布韦学者肯德蒙·尼亚萨·胡恩圭 (Kedmon Nyasha Hungwe)话,我们还需要了解:为什么西方列强为非洲发展不足的指责游戏需要受到质疑,因为其具有片面性,总是针对非洲往往充斥着腐败的国家的不足之处。 (278)
正如约瑟夫·卡比拉总统所提出的, 每一次刚果(金)有了喘息的机会,尽管短暂,使得刚果人能够充分贡献他们的注意力和精力来发展本国伟大而美丽的事业, 内部和外部的黑暗的势力,总是去抓住刚果人民的丝毫的分心和粗心一刻而重燃火焰。 (279) 这意味着,每当刚果(金)尝试采用革命性的独立路径自由飞翔,它的翅膀总被西方列强通过直接的军事干预、暗杀、政权更迭或使用刚果邻国作为代理力量剪断。目的是继续削弱刚果国家(在一个欠发达的国家,上文所述的所有弊病都将自然地滋生,包括腐败、裙带关系、“事务主义”(affairism)、有罪不罚、 部落主义、世袭主义、矿产财富抛售等等。因此,外部因素加剧内部因素),并掠夺刚果(金)的财富;而且是在杀戮、屠杀、种族灭绝、强奸和抢劫当中。这回答我们的研究问题:“为什么资源战争在刚果(金)持续发生?”
正如皮埃尔·昂格勒贝(Pierre Englebert)认为,由于极端的多相性和其人口的极端化,全球化的错位和外国占领等等,还有自己不足之处的多重攻击之下,刚果(金)作为一个国家本该早已崩溃。然而,刚果(金)已经超出这样的预期,并继续显示出惊人的弹性倾向。国家的弱点、外国侵略、由跨国和非正式的网络剥夺其自然资源,并且国内的多样叛乱勾结外国利益,都没有丝毫削弱刚果(金)的精英阶层和普通公民、外国的政治经济利益和整个国际社会之间对刚果国家的重建的广义支持的存在。 (280)
罗兰·普尔捷(Roland Pourtier)认为,无论是1960年的分裂(包括加丹加省的),或1964年的叛乱、蒙博托统治多年的政治和种族暴力,甚至最近的叛乱,自 1998 年以来再一次撕裂该国,导致该国事实上的分割……都没能破坏国家统一。这就是刚果(金)的悖论:刚果人统计上都应该在很久以前死了,在体制上垂死的国家似乎已失去了控制其领土的能力。然而刚果(金)和刚果人民确实仍然存在。混乱之上,仍有把他们粘在一起的力量:刚果河的形象和它流经的广大领土,已是学校里的每门课的主要内容和媒体报道的主要焦点,与一个多世纪的共享记忆一道,这些都可能促成了这种强烈的集体身份的出现。
然而,自从比利时国王利奥波德二世的无情统治,并随着 1961 年的卢蒙巴被暗杀后民主被斩首,西方的政策已经把刚果(金)变成一个真正的灾难,其领导人已易于腐败,其人民就不得不自找出路……现在,西方的政策,尤其是美国的,体现了对西方对矿产的胃口。这些政策阻碍一个真正民主、 经济上强大和繁荣的刚果(金)的复兴,特别是美国对刚果(金)的四个政策(1982—2014年)是我们研究的对象。这些是:
(1) 1982年美国政府的“钴:政策方案和战略矿产” 政策,那些鼓励了盗贼统治的国度(蒙博托政权);
(2) 1997年美国柏克德公司的“刚果重建方案”政策,旨在防止一个革命的社会主义国家的建立(洛朗·德西雷·卡比拉政权);
(3) “奥巴马2006年刚果民主共和国救济、安全和民主促进法”政策;在人道主义干预的借口下, 资助了一个失败的国家,军阀和叛乱分子制定法律(在“一加四” 制度下:一位总统和四位副总统,这四个人就是在战争中的四个主要派别的领导人);
(4) 2013年“作为刚果危机补救办法的南斯拉夫式或苏丹式的解决方案”政策,旨在支持一种“远程控制的民主”——所以我们同意,托马斯·芒廷(Thomas Mountain)的“用西方民主来摧毁非洲”的理论 (281) ——否则刚果国家会遭受巴尔干化(约瑟夫·卡比拉统治)。见下表6:
表6 四个政策所制造或塑造的刚果政权
刚果(金)的“自治”和缺乏政治统一也使得这个国家很容易成为外部干预的猎物。我们同意塞拉里·马克格塔拉能(Sehlare Makgetlaneng)的说法,他认为,“大多数的领导人并没有提升人民大众的权益,他们反而成了人民的敌人。这个残酷的现实并没有改变,实际上一直都是如此。非洲国家绝大多数的领导人是广大非洲人民的敌人,阻碍着本国和非洲大陆的发展和进步”。 (282)
在北非,年轻人组织的“阿拉伯之春”是这一残酷现实的结果。青年人走上街头之前,使用了推特(Twitter) 和脸谱网(Facebook)来发起推翻北非国家的领导人的运动。 (283) 不过,笔者认为,推特和脸谱网的“计算机服务器或工作站”都是在美国,而不是在非洲。没有人能保证这些新殖民主义的工具总是用于非洲状况的改善(我们还必须强调“阿拉伯之春”过程中一些亲美非政府组织和公民社会的作用)。非洲需要“软件主权”,即对在非洲被使用的一些软件行使主权。西方列强总是找到新的方法来转移非洲人民的注意力,并保持他们对非洲资源的控制权。
由此可以理解,为什么刚果(金)的民族主义领导人,如卢蒙巴和卡比拉,曾试图阻止新殖民主义在刚果(金)发生,并与已成功摆脱殖民主义和新殖民主义束缚的中国建立起深厚的友谊。相反,刚果(金)的反动领导人,如蒙博托,只是在一个国家与另一个国家的利益间游戏。他只是在理查德·尼克松开辟了道路后才来到中国。之后,当被西方严厉批评时,他又威胁将加入社会主义阵营。这就是为什么中国和朝鲜在1970年代会失望地离开扎伊尔——因为蒙博托的双重交易。最终,蒙博始终扮演的都是在该地区为共产主义提供缓冲的角色,而且很明显,相比中国和朝鲜的利益,他更认可西方的商业利益。套用马尼帕尔大学地缘政治学教授马达夫·达斯·纳拉帕特(Madhav Das Nalapat)谈到印度的时候的话,西方大国不想刚果(金)存在强有力的领导人。他们只想要弱势的政府和只听他们指挥而无不顾人民利益的领导人。 (284) 更重要的是,美国不相信民主本身,因为在美国的命令下,某些当选的领导人,如帕特里斯·卢蒙巴,被废黜并被那些非民选的人所取代,如蒙博托。
我们同意考莱特·布拉科曼(Colette Braeckman)的观点,她认为,为使刚果(金)自立,它必须得到帮助,以继续卢蒙巴的而被破坏和谋杀打断了的斗争;换言之,重建一个统一的刚果国家,因为它的发展可以给整个地区带来和平。 (285)
我们也同意中国学者和非洲事务的专家李安山提出的观点,非洲人是土地(及其包含的所有)正当的所有者,其他人都是客人。 (286) 所以,刚果人民不想只在名义上做他们祖先的土地、自然资源和矿产资源的合法所有者。刚果(金)正在经历的混乱是由以下三个因素造成:
(1) 刚果人民正在重新主张其祖先土地及其包含的所有的合法所有权(收回模式);(2) 如此做时,他们与西方列强发生直接冲突,因为这挑战他们在刚果任意的殖民要求(剥夺模式),并相信这些要求仍然适用;(3) 同时,新兴的大国,如中国,在非洲非常受欢迎,并正在巩固他们在那里的存在,不管西方列强喜欢还是不喜欢,中国在非洲的存在正在帮助拆除那里所有西方列强建立的殖民地机制。
这三个因素之间的交互作用。中国作为全球性大国的崛起给刚果(金)提供了使其贸易伙伴多样化的机遇,中国在刚果(金)日益强大的存在更是被美国决策层视为对其在非洲的“零和博弈”战略的一大挑战。有鉴于此,本书单列一“附章”(即第五章), 集中关注刚果(金)与新兴国家之间的关系取得的成就(基础设施建设会对刚果(金)其他部门的发展产生多米诺效应,除了矿业之外,尤其还包括农业、科技授权、就业岗位创造、减少贫困与国家管理体制的范式转变),以及此类关系会对美-中-刚三方关系造成何种影响。
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(61) Ibid.
(62) Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill(eds.),Zaire:A Country Study. Fourth Edition. Washington:Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.1994.
(63) Kim B. Shedd,“Cobalt”,U.S. Geological Survey(USGS),July 21,2010,http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cobalt/210798.pdf.登录时间2014年9月13日。
(64) U.S. Deparetment of State:Office of the Historian. Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,Volume XXIII,Congo,1960-1968,Document 579,Washington,September 27,1968.
(65) Alfie Ulloa,Felipe Katz and Nicole Kekeh,Democratic Republic of the Congo:A Study of Binding Constraints. Harvard:Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University,2009,pp.111-112.
(66) Kim B. Shedd,“Cobalt”,U.S. Geological Survey(USGS),July 21,2010,http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cobalt/210798.pdf.登录时间2014年9月13日。
(67) Alfie Ulloa,Felipe Katz and Nicole Kekeh.
(68) Cobalt:Policy Options for a Strategic Mineral,Congressional Budget Office,Special Study,September 1982,p.iii.
(69) Cobalt:Policy Options for a Strategic Mineral,Congressional Budget Office,Special Study,September 1982,第20页。
(70) Ann Garrison,“America”s Role in Central Africa:AFRICOM,the U.S. Africa Command,Rwanda,the Congo”,Global Research,July 08,2010,http://www.globalresearch.ca/america⁃s⁃role⁃in⁃central⁃africa⁃africom⁃the⁃u⁃s⁃africa⁃command⁃rwanda⁃the⁃congo/20064.登录时间2014年9月14日。
(71) Ann Garrison,“America”s Role in Central Africa:AFRICOM,the U.S. Africa Command,Rwanda,the Congo,Global Research,July 08,2010,http://www.global research.ca/america⁃s⁃role⁃in⁃central⁃africa⁃africom⁃the⁃u⁃s⁃africa⁃command⁃rwanda⁃the⁃congo/20064.登录时间2014年9月14日。
(72) Jack Anderson,“President of Zaire visits Washington with open arms”,The Evening News,Jun 26,1988.
(73) Ibid.
(74) William D. Hartung and Bridget Moix,“Report:U.S. Arms To Africa And The Congo War⁃ World Policy Institute⁃Research Project”,World Policy Journal⁃World Policy Institute,January 2000.
(75) Ellen Ray,“U.S. Military and Corporate Recolonization of the Congo”,Covert Action Quarterly,Spring / Summer 2000,http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Africa/US_Recolonization_Congo.html.登录时间2013年12月17日。
(76) Jack Anderson,“President of Zaire visits Washington with open arms”,The Evening News,Jun 26,1988.
(77) Ibid.
(78) Leonce Ndikumana and James K. Boyce,“Congo”s Odious Debt:External Borrowing and Capital Flight in Zaire,Development and Change,Vol. 29,Issue N0.2,December 16,2002,pp.195-217.
(79) Stewart Smith,U.S. Neocolonialism in Africa. New York:International Publishers,1974,p.91.
(80) Erwin M. Blumenthal,“Zaire:Rapport Sur la Crédibilité Financière Internationale”,in Emmanual Dungia. Mobutu et l'Argent du Zaire:Les Révélations d'un Diplomate Ex⁃Agent des Services Secrets. Paris:L'Harmattan,1992,Annexe 2,pp. 136-155.
(81) Jonathan Kwitny,Endless Enemies:The Making of an Unfriendly World. New York:Penguin,1984,p.97.
(82) Bill Berkeley,“Zaire:An African Horror Story”,The Atlantic Monthly,August 1993,,http://www.theatlantic.com/past/unbound/flashbks/rwanda/zaire.htm.登录时间2014年9月28日。
(83) William Reno,Warlord Politics and African States. London:Lynne Rienner,1998,p.153.
(84) Adam Zagorin,“Leaving fire in his wake”,Time,February 1993,Vol. 141,Issue 8,p.54.
(85) Raymond Bonner,“New Congo Leader Meets US Envoy on Refugee Issue”,The New York Times,June 8,1997,http://www.nytimes.com/1997/06/08/world/new⁃congo⁃leader⁃meets⁃us⁃envoy⁃on⁃refugee⁃issue.html.登录时间2014年9月11日。
(86) Joseph Patrick Ganahl,Corruption,Good Governance,and the African State:A Critical Analysis of the Political⁃Economic Foundations of Corruption in Sub⁃Saharan Africa. Postdam:Potsdam University Press,2013,pp.21-52.
(87) Crawford Young and Thomas Turner,The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State. Madison,Wisconsin,and London:University of Wisconsin Press,1985,p.42.
(88) Tshimanga wa Tshibangu,Histoire du Zaire. Bukavu:Editions du Ceruki,1976.
(89) Kevin Dunn,“Imagining Mobutu's,s Zaïre:The Production and Consumption of Identity in International Relations”,Millennium:Journal of International Studies,Vol. 30,No. 2,2001,pp. 235-258.
(90) Kevin Dunn,“Imagining Mobutu”s Zaïre:The Production and Consumption of Identity in International Relations,Millennium:Journal of International Studies,Vol. 30,No. 2,2001,pp. 235-258.
(91) Quoted in Victor D. Du Bois,“Zaïre Under President Sese Seko Mobutu”,part I,The Return to Authenticity,American University Field Staff Report,Central and Southern Africa Series,No. 17,1973,p.13.
(92) 讽刺的是,扎伊尔的名字来源于葡萄牙语单词“扎伊尔”,本身是刚果语单词“恩泽尔”(Nzere)或“恩赞迪”(N'zadi)的改编,即“燕子所有河流的河”。同样能说明问题的是,在1971年,蒙博托决定更换“先生”和“夫人”这个词,而不是为用林加拉语“刚果人”或任何其他土著语言的标题,取而代之的来自法国大革命的“公民”或“女公民”。参阅:Crawford Young and Thomas Edwin Turner,完整的参考,见p207①。
(93) Thomas M. Callaghy,“External Actors and the Relative Autonomy of the Political Aristocracy in Zaïre”,Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics,Vol.21,No. 3,1983,pp. 287-309;and Catharine M. Newbury,“Dead and Buried or Just Underground?The Privatisation of the State in Zaïre”,in L' état indépendant du Congo,Congo Belge,Republique Démocratique du Congo,Republique du Zaïre,ed. Bogumil Jewsiewicki,Quebec:Éditions SAFI Press,1984.
(94) Colette Braeckman,Le dinosaure:Le Zaïre de Mobutu. Paris:Fayard,1992.
(95) Crawford Young and Thomas Edwin Turner,The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State. Madison,Wisconsin,and London:University of Wisconsin Press,1985,p.42.
(96) David.J. Gould,“Patrons and Clients:The Role of the Military in Zairian Politics”,in James Isaac Mowoe(ed.),The Performance of Soldiers as Governors. Columbus,Ohio:University Press of America,1980,pp.465-506.
(97) Ali Mazrui,The Africans:A Triple Heritage. London:BBC Books,1987.
(98) Khalil Timamy,“African Leaders and Corruption”,Review of African Political Economy,June/Sept.2005,Vol.32,No.104/5,pp.386-393.
(99) Jean⁃Francois Bayart,The State in Africa:The Politics of the Belly. Harlow:Longman,1993.
(100) William Reno,Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone. New York:Cambridge University Press,1995.
(101) Kevin Dunn,“Imagining Mobutu,s Zaïre:The Production and Consumption of Identity in International Relations”,Millennium:Journal of International Studies,Vol. 30,No. 2,2001,pp. 235-258.
(102) Ghislain Kabwit,“Zaïre:The Roots of the Continuing Crisis”,Journal of Modern African Studies,Vol. 17,No. 3,1979,p.387.
(103) Kevin Dunn,“Imagining Mobutu,s Zaïre:The Production and Consumption of Identity in International Relations,”Millennium:Journal of International Studies,Vol. 30,No. 2,2001,pp. 235-258.
(104) Frantz Fanon,Les Damnés de la Terre. Paris:Maspero,1961.
(105) CIA,Special Report:Mobutu and the Congo,23 June 1967,quoted in Sean Kelly,America's Tyrant:The CIA and Mobutu of Zaïre. Washington,DC:American University Press,1993,p.193.
(106) CIA,Special Report:Mobutu and the Congo,23 June 1967,quoted in Sean Kelly,America's Tyrant:The CIA and Mobutu of Zaïre. Washington,DC:American University Press,1993,p.193.
(107) Kevin Dunn,“Imagining Mobutu,s Zaïre:The Production and Consumption of Identity in International Relations,”Millennium:Journal of International Studies,Vol. 30,No. 2,2001,pp. 235-258.
(108) Richard L. Sklar,“The Nature of Class Domination in Africa”,The Journal of Modern African Studies,Vol.17,No.04,1979,p.531.
(109) William D. Hartung and Bridget Moix,“Report:U.S. Arms To Africa And The Congo War⁃ World Policy Institute⁃Research Project,”World Policy Journal⁃World Policy Institute,January 2000.
(110) Ibid.
(111) Franz Fanon,Les Damnés de la Terre,Paris:Maspero,1961.
(112) Murithi Mutiga,“The Ugly Side of Ronald Reagan”,The Standard,20 June 2004.
(113) “Zaire:The Rise and Fall of Mobutu”,Revolutionary Worker,April 20,1997,Issue 903,p.7.
(114) US Department of State Bulletin:Visit of Zaire's president⁃Mobutu Sese Seko and George Bush addresses,includes related information⁃transcript,Washington,U.S. Government Printing Office,1989.
(115) Michela Wrong,“Mystery of Mobutu's millions”,Newstatesman,July 26,2007,http://www.newstatesman.com/africa/2007/07/wrong⁃mobutu⁃congolese.登录时间2013年9月14日。
(116) Timothy M. Shaw and Malcolm J. Grieve,“The Political Economy of Resources:Africa's Future in the Global Environment”,The Journal of Modern African Studies,1978,Vol.16,No.1,pp.1-32..
(117) S. Askin and Carole Collins,“External collusion with Kleptocracy:Can Zaire recapture its wealth?”Review of African Political Economy,1993,Vol.20,No.57,pp.72-85.
(118) Fidel Castro,“It is time to know a little more about realities”,Digital Granma International,July 23,2014,http://www.granma.cu/idiomas/ingles/cuba⁃i/23jul⁃It%20is%20time.html.HYPERLINK“http://think africa press.com/economy/consensual⁃rape⁃francafrique⁃currency⁃markets”.登录时间2013年9月14日。
(119) “Democratic Republic of Congo:An Approach to National Development”,a draft document of Bechtel's Congo reconstruction plan presented to the Congolese Government on November 1997.
(120) “Democratic Republic of Congo:An Approach to National Development”,a draft document of Bechtel's Congo reconstruction plan presented to the Congolese Government on November 1997,pp.16-21.
(121) “Democratic Republic of Congo:An Approach to National Development”,a draft document of Bechtel's Congo reconstruction plan presented to the Congolese Government on November 1997,pp.21-22.
(122) Ibid.,p.23.
(123) “Democratic Republic of Congo:An Approach to National Development”,a draft document of Bechtel's Congo reconstruction plan presented to the Congolese Government on November 1997,p.23.
(124) “Democratic Republic of Congo:An Approach to National Development”,a draft document of Bechtel's Congo reconstruction plan presented to the Congolese Government on November 1997,pp.2-11.
(125) Philippe Leymarie,“One step forward,two steps back:Africa worn out by war”,Le Monde Diplomatique,April 1999,http://mondediplo.com/1999/04/08africa.登录时间2013年11月19日。
(126) Ludo Martens,Kabila et la révolution congolaise:panafricanisme ou néocolonialisme?Anvers:Editions EPO,p.334.
(127) Georges Nzongola⁃Ntalaja,“The Role of Intellectuals in the Struggle for Democracy,Peace and Reconstruction in Africa:Presidential Address delivered at the 11th Biennial Congress of the African Association of Political Science(A APS)in Durban,South Africa,June 23-26,1997”,African Journal of Political Science,1997,Vol. 2 No. 2,1-14.
(128) Francis Fukuyama,The End of History and the Last Man. London:Hamish Hamilton,1992.
(129) Michael Nest,“Ambitions,Profits and Loss:Zimbabwean Economic Involvement in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,African Affairs,July 2001,Vol. 100,N0.400,pp.469-490.
(130) Michael Nest,“Ambitions,Profits and Loss:Zimbabwean Economic Involvement in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,African Affairs,July 2001,Vol. 100,N0.400,pp.469-490.
(131) Amilcar Cabral,Revolution in Guinea:An African people's struggle,London:Stage One,1974,p.105.
(132) Ludo Martens,Kabila et la rvolution congolaise:panafricanisme ou nocolonialisme?Anvers:Editions EPO,2002,p.234.
(133) Georges Nzongola⁃Ntalaja,“The Role of Intellectuals in the Struggle for Democracy,Peace and Reconstruction in Africa:Presidential Address delivered at the 11th Biennial Congress of the African Association of Political Science(A APS)in Durban,South Africa,June 23-26,1997”,African Journal of Political Science,1997,Vol. 2 No. 2,1-14.(https://www.daowen.com)
(134) Alex Thomson,An Introduction to African Politics(3rd edition),London and NewYork:Taylor & Francis Group,2010,p.155.
(135) Ludo Martens,Kabila et la rvolution congolaise:panafricanisme ou nocolonialisme?Anvers:Editions EPO,2002,p.232.
(136) Michael Nest,“Ambitions,Profits and Loss:Zimbabwean Economic Involvement in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,African Affairs,July 2001,Vol. 100,N0.400,pp.469-490.
(137) Roland Pourtier,“Du Zaïre au Congo:un territoire en quête d'Etat”,Afrique Contemporaine,1997,N0.183,pp. 7-30.
(138) Robert Jackson,Quasi⁃states:Sovereignty,International Relations and the Third World. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1990.
(139) William Reno,Op.cit.,94 above.
(140) Bienvenu Mundala,“Economy⁃Congo:Kabila Government Bans Use of Foreign Currency”,Inter Press Service,January 15,1999,http://www.ipsnews.net/1999/01/economy⁃congo⁃kabila⁃government⁃bans⁃use⁃of⁃foreign⁃currency/. HYPERLINK“http://thinkafricapress.com/economy/consensual⁃rape⁃francafrique⁃currency⁃markets”.登录时间2014年9月21日。
(141) 赵国忠、温伯友、杨光主编:《中东非洲发展报:1998—1999》,社会科学文献出版社1999年版,第13—14页。
(142) 汪淼:《刚果民主共和国总统——洛朗·卡比拉》,《亚非纵横》1997年第3期,第34—36页。
(143) “Jacques Chirac propose un service civil”,La Croix,November 15,2005,http://www.la⁃croix.com/Actualite/France/Jacques⁃Chirac⁃propose⁃un⁃service⁃civil⁃NG⁃2005-11-15-589567.登录时间2014年11月6日。
(144) Saint Hervé M'Buy,“Foisonnement des partis politiques:Mende propose des pistes de solution”,L'Avenir,2 novembre 2014,http://www.groupelavenir.org/spip.php?article2128.登录时间2014年11月6日。
(145) Juan E. Ugarriza,Ideologies and Conflict in the Post⁃Cold War:Afghanistan,D.R. Congo,Colombia. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,ProQuest,UMI Dissertations Publishing,2007,pp.69-72.
(146) Christian Castéran et Blaise⁃Pascal Talla,“Laurent Desire Kabila:‘Le Peuple Vaincra!’”,Jeune Afrique Economy,N0 286-Du 3 au 16 Mai 1999.
(147) René Lemarchand,“Pattern of state collapse and reconstruction in Central Africa:Reflections on the Crisis in the Great Lakes region”,Africa Spectrum,1997,Vol.32,N0.2,pp.173-193.
(148) Roland Pourtier,“Du Zaïre au Congo:un territoire en quête d'Etat”,Afrique Contemporaine,1997,N0.183,pp. 7-30.
(149) Pierre Englebert,“Life Support or Assisted Suicide?Dilemmas of US Policy towards the Democratic Republic of Congo”,In Nancy Birdsall et al.(eds.). Short of the Goal:US Policy and Poorly Performing States. Washington:Brookings Institution Press,2006,pp.53-82.
(150) Ibid.,pp.53-82.
(151) Shawn Russell,“Mao Zedong's On Guerrilla Warfare and Joseph Kabila's Lost Opportunity”,Small Wars Journal,July 10,2012.
(152) Newsweek Staff,“How Che Saw Kabila”,Newsweek,April 20,1997,http://www.newsweek.com/how⁃che⁃saw⁃kabila-171416.登录时间2014年9月29日。
(153) Christian Castéran et Blaise⁃Pascal Talla,“Laurent Desire Kabila:‘Le Peuple Vaincra!’”,Jeune Afrique Economy,N0 286-Du 3 au 16 Mai 1999.
(154) Gwinyayi Szinesa and Joyce Laker(Rapporteurs),“Post⁃Conflict Reconstruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,Policy Advisory Group Seminar Report,Vineyard Hotel,Cape Town,South Africa,19-20 April 2010.
(155) William Reno,Op.cit.,94 above.
(156) Patrick Nduwimana,Clement Uwiringiyimana and Lesley Wroughton,“U.S. urges probe over corpses found in Rwanda⁃Burundi border lake”,Reuters,Sep 25,2014,http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/25/us⁃burundi⁃bodies⁃rwanda⁃idUSKCN0HK21C20140925.登录时间2014年10月2日。另见:US Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa,Global Health,Global Human Rights,and International OrganizationsSubcommittee:Hearing:Developments in Rwanda,Wednesday,May 20,2015,http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/hearing/subcommittee⁃hearing⁃developments⁃rwanda.登录时间2015年5月27日。
(157) 已故英国前外交大臣罗宾·库克(Robin Cook),2003年在伦敦城市大学进行他的回忆录的发行会,题为“出发点”,他在回答笔者提问时说:“虽然在1994年种族灭绝之后卢旺达安全的担忧是可以理解的,但是当前在基加利的政权对刚果战争负有重大的责任。”
(158) Meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club,Presidential Press and Information Office,October 24,2014,http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/23137.登录时间2014年11月14日。
(159) Gérard Prunier,Africa's World War:Congo,the Rwandan genocide and the making of a continental catastrophe. New York:Oxford University Press,2009.
(160) U.S. Senate,109th Congress,2nd Session(January 3,2006),“S. 2125,Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief,Security,and Democracy Promotion Act”(see Section101),http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi⁃bin/bdquery/z?d109:S2125.登录时间2013年11月22日。
(161) Sally Mathews and Solomon Hussein,“The Challenges of State Collapse in Africa:The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo”,Africa Insight,Vol.31,No.3,2001,pp.24-31.
(162) Jeffrey Herbst and Greg Mills,“The Invisible State:It's time we admit the Democratic Republic of Congo does not exist”,Foreign Policy Magazine,June 24,2013,http://www.foreign policy.com/articles/2013/06/24/the_invisible_state. HYPERLINK“http://thinkafricapress.com/economy/consensual⁃rape⁃francafrique⁃currency⁃markets”.登录时间2014年11月17日。
(163) Jeffrey Herbst and Greg Mills,“There Is No Congo:Why the only way to help Congo is to stop pretending it exists”,Foreign Policy Magazine,March 18,2009,http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/03/17/there_is_no_congo.登录时间2014年11月17日。
(164) U.S. Senate,109th Congress,2nd Session(January 3,2006),“S. 2125,Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief,Security,and Democracy Promotion Act”(see Section101),http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi⁃bin/bdquery/z?d109:S2125.登录时间2013年11月22日。
(165) Claude Kabemba and Roger Kabasomba,“The Democratic Republic of Congo:Diagnosis of the Prospects for peace”,Institute for Global Dialogue,October 2003,Issue N0.27,http://www.igd.org.za/publication/Global%20Insight/gi_27.pdf.登录时间2014年11月18日。
(166) U.S. Senate,109th Congress,2nd Session(January 3,2006),“S. 2125,Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief,Security,and Democracy Promotion Act”(see Section101),http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi⁃bin/bdquery/z?d109:S2125.登录时间2013年11月22日。
(167) U.S. Senate,109th Congress,2nd Session(January 3,2006),“S. 2125,Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief,Security,and Democracy Promotion Act”(see Section101),http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi⁃bin/bdquery/z?d109:S2125.登录时间2013年11月22日。
(168) William Reno,Op.cit.,94 above.
(169) International Development Association/International Monetary Fund/Enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries(HIPC)Initiative:Preliminary Document on the Democratic Republic of Congo. Prepared by the Staffs of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank,May 24,2002,https://www.imf.org/external/np/hipc/2002/cod/codpd.pdf.登录时间2014年9月27日。
(170) “Le club de Paris annule 4,64 milliards de dette de la Rd Congo”,Digitalcongo.net,13/09/2002,http://www.digitalcongo.net/article/9148.登录时间2014年9月27日。
(171) “IMF and World Bank Support US$10 Billion in Debt Service Relief for the Democratic Republic of the Congo”,International Monetary Fund,Press Release No. 03/127,July 28,2003.
(172) Jean Omasombo Tshonda et Noël Obotela Rashidi,“La dernière transition politique en RDC”,dans:L'Afrique des Grands Lacs,Dix ans de transitions conflictuelles. Paris,L'Harmattan,2005-2006,p. 233.
(173) “Leaving the Quagmire”,Africa Confidential,2002,Vol. 43,No. 19,pp.3-5.
(174) Emily Chasan,“Just Four Companies Had Conflict Mineral Reports Audited”,The Wall Street Journal/CFO Journal,September 18,2014,http://blogs.wsj.com/cfo/2014/09/18/just⁃four⁃companies⁃had⁃conflict⁃mineral⁃reports⁃audited/?mod=yahoo_hs.登录时间2014年9月19日。
(175) Susan Rice,“U.S. Foreign Assistance and Failed States”,Working Paper for the Brookings Website,November 25,2002.
(176) Edison Akugizibwe,“Inside Story:How Kabila Forced Uganda To Close Bunagana Border Post”,Chimpreports.com,November 14,2012,http://chimpreports.com/index.php/special⁃reports/6966⁃inside⁃story⁃how⁃kabila⁃forced⁃uganda⁃to⁃close⁃bunagana⁃border⁃post.html.登录时间2014年1月11日。
(177) Colette Braeckman,“Cinq questions après la chute de Goma”,Le Soir,Novembre 21,2012,http://blog.lesoir.be/colette⁃braeckman/2012/11/21/cinq⁃questions⁃apres⁃la⁃chute⁃de⁃goma/.登录时间2014年1月11日。
(178) Colette Braeckman,“Cinq questions après la chute de Goma”,Le Soir,Novembre 21,2012,http://blog.lesoir.be/colette⁃braeckman/2012/11/21/cinq⁃questions⁃apres⁃la⁃chute⁃de⁃goma/.登录时间2014年1月11日。
(179) James Traub,“Think again:Failed States”,Foreign Policy,June 20,2011,http://www.foreign policy.com/articles/2011/06/20/think_again_failed_states.登录时间2014年9月23日。
(180) Mark Doyle,“DR Congo's rebel kaleidoscope”,BBC News Africa,December 5,2012,http://www.bbc.com/news/world⁃africa-20586792.登录时间2014年9月23日。
(181) Fidel Castro,“Just ideas⁃or disaster⁃will triumph”,Granma International,September 1,2014,http://www.granma.cu/idiomas/ingles/reflections⁃i/1sept⁃Just%20ideas.html.登录时间2014年9月23日。
(182) Africa Faith and Justice Network,“Evaluating Peace and Stability in the RDC and US Policy in the Great Lakes Region”,Africa Report,November 2009,http://www.afjn.org/focus⁃campaigns/promote⁃peace⁃d⁃r⁃congo/30⁃commentary.html?start=36.登录时间2013年12月13日。
(183) William D Hartung and Bridget Moix,“Report:U.S. Arms To Africa And The Congo War⁃ World Policy Institute⁃Research Project”,World Policy Journal⁃World Policy Institute,January 2000.
(184) Charles Cobb Jr. and Ofeibea Quist⁃Arcto,“Kabila tells the West,‘Promise me Peace,not Money,Hypocrisy and Lip Service’”,Global Policy Forum,November 1,2001,https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/181/33445.html.登录时间2014年9月25日。
(185) Bureau d'Etudes,de Recherches et de Consulting International. Sondage d'Opinions:November 1998. Kinshasa,Mimeo.
(186) International Crisis Group(ICP),“Storm Clouds over Sun City:The Urgent Need to Recast the Congolese Peace Process”,Africa Report,No.44,May 14,2002,http://www.refworld.org/docid/3de73e0b4.html.登录时间2014年9月25日。
(187) Colette Braeckman,“Carve⁃up in the Congo:Partition poses as protection”,Le Monde Diplomatique,October 8,1999,http://mondediplo.com/1999/10/08congo.登录时间2014年11月11日。
(188) Ibid.
(189) Tryphon Kin⁃kiey Mulumba,“Bemba fils Mobutu”,Le Soft International,25 août 2006,http://www.lesoftonline.net/articles/bemba⁃fils⁃mobutu.登录时间2014年3月11日。
(190) DFDI,“Elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2006”,https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67652/elections⁃cd⁃2006.pdf,登录时间2014年11月26日。This is a brief is adapted from Denis Kadima and David K. Leonard,“Elections and Democratisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,Journal of African Elections,Vol.8,No.1,2008,pp.15-48.
(191) Ibid.
(192) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“DRC:Democracy at a crossroads:One election,two sources of legitimacy of power”,Pambazuka News,Issue 558,November 16,2011,http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/77976/print.登录时间2014年11月26日。
(193) DFDI,“Elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2006”,https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67652/elections⁃cd⁃2006.pdf,登录时间2014年11月26日。This is a brief is adapted from Denis Kadima and David K. Leonard,“Elections and Democratisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo”,Journal of African Elections,Vol.8,No.1,2008,pp.15-48.
(194) “Democracy and governance:A critical foundation for sustainable development”,USAID,2011,http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub⁃saharan_africa/sectors/dg/index.html.登录时间2014年3月11日。
(195) Kema Irogbe,“Transformation in South Africa:A Study of Education and Land”,International Third World Studies Journal and Review,Vol.16,2003,pp.11-28.
(196) Sylvanus Idahota Ebohon,“State and Rentier Capitalism in Nigeria:The Political Economy of Hydrocarbon Nationalism and Dependence Reproduction”,Journal of Third World Studies,Vol. 30,No. 1,Spring 2013,pp. 209-236.
(197) René Lemarchand,“Reflections on the Crisis in Eastern Congo”,Working Paper. University of Florida,October 29,2008,http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/lemarchand%20article.pdf.登录时间2014年9月25日。
(198) René Lemarchand,“Reflections on the Crisis in Eastern Congo”,Working Paper. University of Florida,October 29,2008,http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/lemarchand%20article.pdf.登录时间2014年9月25日。
(199) Ibid.
(200) Ibid.
(201) Ibid.
(202) Global Witness,“Resource plunder still driving eastern Congo conflict”,November 1,2008,http://www.globalwitness.org/library/resource⁃plunder⁃still⁃driving⁃eastern⁃congo⁃conflict.登录时间2014年9月25日。
(203) Pierre Englebert,“Life Support or Assisted Suicide?Dilemmas of US Policy towards the Democratic Republic of Congo”,In Nancy Birdsall et al.(eds.). Short of the Goal:US Policy and Poorly Performing States. Washington:Brookings Institution Press,2006,pp.53-82.
(204) Mission Permanente de la République Démocratique du Congo Auprès de l'Organisation des Nations Unies:Discours de Son Excellence Monsieur le Président de la République à la 69eme Session des Travaux de l'Assemblee Générale des Nations Unies,New York,le 25 Septembre 2014.
(205) “Kinshasa:Kabila renvoie le projet de budget 2010 au Parlement”,Radio Oakpi,janvier 6,2010.另见:“RDC:le président Kabila renvoie le projet de budget 2013 au Parlement”,Radio Okapi,janvier 3,2013.
(206) “Tin price gains after Kabila shuts Congo mines”,Mining Journal,September,2010,http://www.mining⁃journal.com/production⁃and⁃markets/tin⁃price⁃gains⁃after⁃kabila⁃shuts⁃congo⁃mines.登录时间2014年9月29日。
(207) “Discours du Président Joseph Kabila à l'occasion de son accession à la présidence du COMESA”,Congo Virtuel,February 28,2014,http://www.congovirtuel.info/ver3/index.php/site⁃map/articles/464⁃discours⁃du⁃president⁃joseph⁃kabila⁃a⁃l⁃occasion⁃de⁃son⁃accession⁃a⁃la⁃presidence⁃du⁃comesa.登录时间2014年9月29日。
(208) Colette Braeckman,“Comment les Américains suivirent le match Kabila⁃Kamerhe”,Le Soir,février 22,2011,http://blog.lesoir.be/colette⁃braeckman/2011/02/06/comment⁃les⁃americains⁃suivirent⁃le⁃match⁃kabila⁃kamerhe/.登录时间2014年9月29日。
(209) Ibid.
(210) Colette Braeckman,“Comment les Américains suivirent le match Kabila⁃Kamerhe”,Le Soir,février 22,2011,http://blog.lesoir.be/colette⁃braeckman/2011/02/06/comment⁃les⁃americains⁃suivirent⁃le⁃match⁃kabila⁃kamerhe/.登录时间2014年9月29日。
(211) Nile Bowie,“USAFRICOM and the Militarization of the African Continent:Combating China's Economic Encroachment”,Global Research,March 23,2012,http://www.global research.ca/usafricom⁃and⁃the⁃militarization⁃of⁃the⁃african⁃continent⁃combating⁃china⁃s⁃economic⁃encroachment/29919.登录时间2014年9月30日。
(212) Jeffrey Gettleman,“An Interview With Joseph Kabila”,The New York Times,April 4,2009.
(213) Hans⁃Jürgen Schlamp,“Congo's Future:A Western Protectorate in Africa?”Spiegel Online International,August 17,2006,http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/congo⁃s⁃future⁃a⁃western⁃protectorate⁃in⁃africa⁃a-432167.html.登录时间2014年9月30日。
(214) Ibid.
(215) Ibid.
(216) Glen Ford,“Africa Lies Naked to Euro⁃American Military Offensive:The US and its Allies are Positioned to Take Much of the Continent”,Global Research,December 02,2011,http://www.globalresearch.ca/africa⁃lies⁃naked⁃to⁃euro⁃american⁃military⁃offensive/27992.登录时间2014年12月13日。
(217) Pierre Englebert,“Why Congo Persists:Sovereignty,Globalization and the Violent Reproduction of a Weak State”,Paper written for the Queen Elizabeth House Carnegie Project on“Global Cultural and Economic Dimensions of Self⁃Determination in Developing Countries”,Queen Elisabeth House Working Paper Series No.95,Oxford,2003.
(218) Jefrrey Herbst and Greg Mills,“There Is No Congo:Why the only way to help Congo is to stop pretending it exists”,Foreign Policy,March 18,2009,http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/03/17/there_is_no_congo.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(219) Harvey Morris,“UN ponders future of Congo mission”,Financial Times,December 22,2009,http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/72e12bea⁃ee99-11de-944c-00144feab49a.html#axzz3En5xldtX.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(220) “Voici l'intégralité de l'allocution du Chef de l'Etat Joseph Kabila devant le Parlement réuni en Congrès”,Digitalcongo,net,le 16 décembre 2014,http://www.digitalcongo.net/article/104370 .登录时间2014年12月13日。
(221) Stephen R. Weissman“An Extraordinary Rendition”,Intelligence and National Security,Vol. 25,No. 2,April 2010,pp.198-222.
(222) Harvey Morris,“UN ponders future of Congo mission”,Financial Times,December 22,2009,http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/72e12bea⁃ee99-11de-944c-00144feab49a.html#axzz3En5xldtX.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(223) République Démocratique du Congo,Cabinet du Président de la République:Discours de Son Excellence Monsieur le Président de la République sur l'Etat de la Nation,Palais du Peuple,le 15 décembre 2012,http://www.digitalcongo.net/UserFiles/file/PDF_files/2012/discours_jkk_etat_nation_2012.pdf.登录时间2014年12月13日。
(224) “Cohésion nationale:Discours de «Joseph KABILA» devant le Congrès”,Kongo Times,23 Octobre 2013,http://afrique.kongotimes.info/rdc/politique/6768-cohesion⁃nationale⁃discours⁃joseph⁃kabila⁃devant⁃congres.html.登录时间2014年12月13日。
(225) The Carter Center:Review of DRC Mining Contracts⁃Update and Recommendations,November 30,2007,http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/drc_mining_contracts_113007.pdf.登录时间2014年12月13日。
(226) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“DRC:Democracy at a crossroads:One election,two sources of legitimacy of power”,Pambazuka News,Issue 558,November 16,2011,http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/77976/print.登录时间2014年11月26日。
(227) Ibid.
(228) Carter Center:DRC Presidential Election Results Lack Credibility,Press Release,December 10,2011,http://www.cartercenter.org/news/pr/drc-121011.html.登录时间2014年12月14日。
(229) André Mbata Mangu,“Democracy and State's compliance with regional and sub⁃regional election benchmarks in Africa:The 28 November 2011 elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo in retrospect”,Journal of African Elections,June 20,2013,Vol.12,No.1,pp.1-34.另见:Timothy B. Reid,“Congolese Elections 2011:Mostly a Problem of Global Governance and Negative‘Soft Power’,not Resources”,Journal of African Elections,June 20,2013,Vol.12,No.1,pp.34-65.
(230) Nolan Feeney,“U.S. Offers Congo $30 Million,On Condition President Steps Down”,Time,May 4,2014,http://time.com/87074/u⁃s⁃offers⁃congo-30-million⁃on⁃condition⁃president⁃steps⁃down/.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(231) “Kabila says Congo won't bow to foreign 'injunctions'”,Reuters,December 15,2014,http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0JT1QS20141215.登录时间2014年12月19日。
(232) “Mapping Conflict Motives:M23”,International Peace Information Service(IPIS)Research/Réseau Européen pour l'Afrique Centrale(Eurac),November 2012,http://www.ipisresearch.be/publications_detail.php?id=390&lang=en.登录时间2014年12月14日。
(233) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“Sino⁃DRC contracts to thwart the return of Western patronage”,Pambazuka News,March 11,2009,http://www.pambazuka.net/en/category/africa_china/54717.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(234) Herman Cohen,“Can Africa Trade Its Way to Peace?”The New York Times,December 15,2008,www.nytimes.com/2008/12/16/opinion/16cohen.html.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(235) “Sarkozy outlines Congo peace plan”,BBC,March 26,2009,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7965089.stm.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(236) Kambale Musavuli,“The conflict in the Congo is a resource war waged by U.S. and British allies”,Global Research,February 19,2009,http://www.globalresearch.ca/the⁃conflict⁃in⁃the⁃congo⁃is⁃a⁃resource⁃war⁃waged⁃by⁃u⁃s⁃and⁃british⁃allies/12404.登录时间2014年10月2日。
(237) Herbert F.Weiss,“Reconstructing the Congo”,Journal of International Affairs,Fall 2004,Vol. 58,No. 1,pp.p.115-142.另见:Elombe Brath and Samori Marksman,“Conflict in the Congo:An Interview with President Laurent Kabila,”Covert Action Quarterly,Winter,1999.
(238) Pete Jones and David Smith,“Goma falls to Congo rebels:M23 militia,which the UN says is backed by Rwanda,takes control of eastern city despite presence of peacekeepers”,The Guardian,November 20,2012,http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/20/goma⁃falls⁃congo⁃rebels.登录时间2014年12月17日。
(239) International Peace Information Service(IPIS)Research/Réseau Européen pour l'Afrique Centrale(Eurac),“Mapping Conflict Motives:M23”,November 2012,http://www.ipisresearch.be/publications_detail.php?id=390&lang=en.登录时间2014年12月14日。
(240) Global Witness,“Digging in corruption:Fraud,abuse and exploitation in Katanga's copper and cobalt mines”,africafederation.net,2006,http://www.africa federation.net/07digging.pdf.登录时间2014年10月3日。
(241) John Le Carré,The Mission Song. Canada:Penguin Group(Canada),Sep 4,2007.
(242) Sébastien Périmony,“RDC:la stratégied'Obama pour « balkaniser » l'Afrique”,Solidarité et Progrès,dimanche 5 janvier 2014,http://www.solidariteetprogres.org/orientation⁃strategique⁃47/rdc⁃balkanisation⁃afrique-10772.html.登录时间2015年1月16日。
(243) Eric Draitser,“US expands military net over Africa,checking China's influence”,RT,February 21,2014,http://rt.com/op⁃edge/us⁃expands⁃military⁃net⁃africa-081/.登录时间2015年1月14日。
(244) Sébastien Périmony,“RDC:la stratégied'Obama pour « balkaniser » l'Afrique”,Solidarité et Progrès,dimanche 5 janvier 2014,http://www.solidariteetprogres.org/orientation⁃strategique⁃47/rdc⁃balkanisation⁃afrique-10772.html.登录时间2015年1月16日。
(245) Convention de Collaboration entre la République Démocratique du Congo er le Groupement d'Entreprises Chinoises:China Railway Group Limited,Sinohydro Corporation Rélative au Développement d'un Projet Minier er d'un Projet d'Infrastructure en République Démocratique du Congo.Année 2008.另见:Devon Curtis,“Hope in the Heart of Africa?Chinese Engagement with the DRC”,Draft Paper presented at the School of Oriental and African Studies(SOAS)lecture,organized by the Royal African Society on 06 May 2008.另见:Alexander Wang and Pei Zhao. A Fieldwork on China's Investment in Mineral Sector of Katanga Province,the DRC. Presentation at a seminar organised by the Center for China's Overseas Interests Studies,Shanghai International Studies University,26 November 2011.
(246) L'Avenir,“Projet minier Sicomines à Kolwezi”,Groupe L'Avenir.org,19 mai 2015,http://groupelavenir.org/projet⁃minier⁃sicomines⁃a⁃kolwezi/.登录时间2015年5月26日。
(247) Mthuli Ncube,Charles Leyeka Lufumpa and Steve Kayizzi⁃Mugerwa,“The Middle of the Pyramid:Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa.”Market Brief,African Development Bank,Tunis,April 20,2011.
(248) Witney Schneidman,“Transforming the U.S.⁃Africa Commercial Relationship”,Brookings Report,April 2013,http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2013/04/us⁃africa⁃commercial⁃relationship⁃schneidman.登录时间2015年1月11日。
(249) Zhang,Jing and Calestous Juma,“Exploring the Sino⁃African Relationship:Both Sides Have Something to Offer,”that's China,February 2,2008,http://live.belfercenter.org/files/Juma⁃Exploring⁃Sino⁃African⁃relationship⁃Feb⁃2008.pdf.登录时间2015年1月9日。
(250) Emeka Umejei,“Why China's‘Infrastructure for Resources’Failed in Nigeria”,American Daily Herald,August 3,2013,http://www.americandailyherald.com/world⁃news/africa/item/why⁃china⁃s⁃infrastructure⁃for⁃resources⁃failed⁃in⁃nigeria.登录时间2015年1月17日。
(251) Deborah Brautigam,The Dragon's Gift:The Real Story of China in Africa. New York:Oxford University Press Inc,2011.
(252) Ana Cristina Alves,“China's‘win⁃win’cooperation:Unpacking the impact of infrastructure⁃for⁃resources deals in Africa”,South African Journal of International Affairs,Vol.20,No.2,pp.207-226.
(253) Vivien Foster,William Butterfield,Chuan Chen and Nataliya Pushak,“Building Bridges:China's Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub⁃Saharan Africa”,Trends and Policy Option Report No5.The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank,2009.
(254) Peter Lee,“China has a Congo copper headache”,Asia Times Online,Mar 11,2010,http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/LC11Cb03.html.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(255) Alexander Wang & Pei Zhao,A fieldwork on China's Investment in Mineral Sector of Katanga Province,DRC,September 18th~November 10th,2011,Report presented at a Center for China's Overseas Interests Studies Shanghai International Studies University Seminar on November 25,2011.
(256) Stefaan Marysse and Sara Geenen,“Les contrats Chinois en RDC:l'impérialisme rouge en marche?”L'Afrique des grands lacs:annuaire 2007-2008.
(257) “Donors Press Congo Over $9 Bln China Minerals Deal”,Financial Times,London,9 February 2009.
(258) Colette Braeckman,“Le Congo et ses amis Chinois:Développement des infrastructures,contrats miniers et poids de la dette”,Le Monde Diplomatique,septembre 2009,http://www.monde⁃diplomatique.fr/2009/09/BRAECKMAN/18100.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(259) Tony Busselen,“Guest Post:Let's Argue About the China⁃Congo Contract”,Deborah Brautigam's Blog,China in Africa:The Real Story,Digging into the myths and realitie,August 3,2011,http://www.chinaafricarealstory.com/2011/08/guest⁃post⁃lets⁃argue⁃about⁃china⁃congo.html.登录时间2015年1月20日。
(260) Tony Busselen,“Guest Post:Let's Argue About the China⁃Congo Contract”,Deborah Brautigam's Blog,China in Africa:The Real Story,Digging into the myths and realitie,August 3,2011,http://www.chinaafricarealstory.com/2011/08/guest⁃post⁃lets⁃argue⁃about⁃china⁃congo.html.登录时间2015年1月20日。
(261) Ibid.
(262) Colette Braeckman,“Le Congo et ses amis Chinois:Développement des infrastructures,contrats miniers et poids de la dette”,Le Monde Diplomatique,septembre 2009,http://www.monde⁃diplomatique.fr/2009/09/BRAECKMAN/18100.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(263) Jeffrey Gettleman,“An Interview with Kabila”,New York Times,3 April 2009.
(264) Peter Lee,“China has a Congo copper headache”,Asia Times Online,Mar 11,2010,http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/LC11Cb03.html.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(265) Peter Lee,“China's copper deal back in the melt”,Asia Times Online,Jun 12,2009,http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/KF12Cb02.html.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(266) Emeka Umejei,“Why China's‘Infrastructure for Resources’Failed in Nigeria”,American Daily Herald,August 3,2013,http://www.americandailyherald.com/world⁃news/africa/item/why⁃china⁃s⁃infrastructure⁃for⁃resources⁃failed⁃in⁃nigeria.登录时间2015年1月17日。
(267) IDA/IMF:DRC⁃Enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries(HIPC)Initiative:Completion Point Document and Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative(MDRI),June 15,2010
(268) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“Sino⁃DRC contracts to thwart the return of Western patronage”,Pambazuka News,Issue 423,September 11,2009,http://www.pambazuka.net/en/category/africa_china/54717.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(269) Ibid.
(270) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“Sino⁃DRC contracts to thwart the return of Western patronage”,Pambazuka News,Issue 423,September 11,2009,http://www.pambazuka.net/en/category/africa_china/54717.登录时间2015年1月15日。
(271) “Plus de peur que de mal,les contrats chinois tiennent bon”,Le Potentiel,01/02/2014,http://www.digitalcongo.net/article/97722.登录时间2015年1月16日。
(272) Ibid.
(273) Ibid.
(274) Patrick Ollawa,“On a Dynamic Model for Rural Development in Africa”,The Journal of African Studies,Vol. 15,No.3,September 1977,pp.401-402.
(275) 同上。
(276) What Now?The Dag Hammarskjold Report on Development and International Cooperation,Uppsala,1975,pp.10,68.
(277) “Congo's M23 conflict:Rebellion or resource war?(Op⁃Ed)”,RT,January 14,2013,http://rt.com/op⁃edge/congo⁃m23⁃rebels⁃washington-960/.登录时间2015年1月16日。
(278) Kedmon Nyasha Hungwe,“Fifty Years of Film⁃Making in Zimbabwe”,Working paper,Department of Education,Michigan Technological University,November 14,2003 http://www.ed.mtu.edu/~khungwe/afrika/kedmon⁃hungwe/film⁃making⁃in⁃zimbabwe.html.登录时间2014年9月20日。
(279) “Voici l'intégralité de l'allocution du Chef de l'Etat Joseph Kabila devant le Parlement réuni en Congrès”,Digitalcongo,net,le 16 décembre 2014,http://www.digitalcongo.net/article/104370.登录时间2014年12月13日。
(280) Pierre Englebert,“Why Congo Persists:Sovereignty,Globalization and the Violent Reproduction of a Weak State”,Paper written for the Queen Elizabeth House Carnegie Project on“Global Cultural and Economic Dimensions of Self⁃Determination in Developing Countries.”,Queen Elisabeth House Working Paper Series No.95,Oxford,2003.
(281) Thomas Mountain,“Destroying Africa with Western‘Democracy'”,Foreign Policy Journal,May 1,2012,http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2012/05/01/destroying⁃africa⁃with⁃western⁃democracy/.登录时间2014年9月3日。
(282) Sehlare Makgetlaneng,“Obama's United States Foreign Policy towards Africa”,Race and History,March 8,2008,http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/2009/0803.html.登录时间2015年2月3日。
(283) 岳巍:《动荡之后的北部非洲去向何处——专访中国社会科学院西亚非洲所非洲研究室主任贺文萍》,《领导文萃》2012年第2期,第6—20页。
(284) Interviewed by Yang Rui“India general election”,CCTV Dialogue,April 18,2014,http://english.cntv.cn/2014/04/19/VIDE1397856000709344.shtml,2014年4月27日查看。
(285) Antoine Roger Lokongo,“Lumumba Apology Not Enough”,New African,March 2002,Issue 405,p13.
(286) 李安山,2014年10月13—14日在北京大学举行对非洲农业国际合作会议开幕式上的讲话,以“农业国际合作与非洲的包容性可持续发展:机遇和挑战”为主题,由北京大学非洲研究中心组织,并由香港乐施会资助。