1.1　The UK literature and definitions

1.1　The UK literature and definitions

In the UK,a variety of terms have been used to talk about domestic violence,such as 'family violence','domestic abuse','violence to women from known men',as well as 'domestic violence' (Hester et al.,2007).But the terms describe the same phenomenon and are used nearly interchangeably (Ward,1997).

Therefore,the term 'domestic violence' has been used universally by British scholars and practitioners because this term is in common everyday and professional use (Hester et al.,2007;Mullender,1996).Accordingly,I will describe and discuss definitions in terms of the following question:

　• How is 'domestic violence' defined?

1.1.1　What is 'domestic violence'?

Among these definitions,we can see that not only do British academics employ the term 'domestic violence' but also the UK government,including,for example,the Home Office.So also do organisations such as the Women's Aid Federation(WAF) of England which is a big non-government organisation (NGO) for domestic violence against women,and the Leeds Inter-agency Project which is one of the oldest organisations in the UK (Humphreys et al.,2000).The definitions used in such contexts generally include the relationships between perpetrators and victims and are gender-specific to some extent.There are 'perpetrators' (usually men) and'victims' (usually women) and a range of types of abusive behaviours.Now we will consider how 'domestic violence' has been defined by UK academics who specialise in the field:

Hague and Malos (2005) point out that:

[Domestic violence] is usually regarded as violence between adults who are or have been in an intimate or family relationship with each other - most often a sexual relationship between a woman and man although often family members may sometimes be involved.

(Hague &Malos,2005:4)

In an earlier study,Hague et al.(2003) stress that:

[Domestic violence] is defined to mean violence between adults who are,or who have been in an intimate or sexual relationship.

(Hague et al.,2003:1)

According to the definitions of Hague and Malos (2005) and Hague et al.(2003),we can see that their definitions are based on the social context:that the violence takes place in family structures,particularly in intimate or sexual relationships.

Most definitions include a gender component.For example,Bacchus et al.(2003) state that:

[Domestic violence] is defined as the physical,emotional or psychological or sexual abuse to an adult woman by a male partner.

(Bacchus et al.,2003:192)

According to this definition,we can see that it focuses on both a range of types of domestic violence (physical,emotional or psychological and sexual violence) and is gender-specific.The recipients of the violence are primarily women and the perpetrators are mostly men.Based on a number of research studies,between 90 and 97 per cent of domestic violence is reported to be perpetrated against women by men (Hague &Malos,2005;Hester et al.,2007).Domestic violence is thought to affect around one in three to four women in their lifetime (Dominy and Radford,1996;Mirrlees-Black,1999;Mooney,1993).These statistics reflect the gender difference in domestic violence occurring between women and men.

Hester et al.(2000) point out:

[By domestic violence] we mean any violence or abuse behaviour (whether physical,sexual,psychological,emotional,verbal,financial,etc.) which is used by one person to control and dominate another with whom they have or have had a relationship.

(Hester et al.,2000:14)

Hester et al.'s definition uses the word 'any' to qualify 'violence'.'Any' violence or abusive behaviour covers various types or a wider range of domestic violence.However,this definition does not directly indicate a relationship between perpetrator and victim and a specific gender relationship as well,while the authors emphasise,as do others,the current or former relationship between perpetrators and victims.At the same time,this definition looks more deeply into the issues of menace and control rather than the stricter ones of physical violence alone.It also concentrates on issues of imbalances of power.

The Women's Aid Federation of England defines 'domestic violence' as comprising a range of types of abuse and relationship between victims and aggressors,as follows:

[Domestic violence] is physical,psychological,sexual or financial violence that takes place within an intimate or family-type relationship and forms a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviour.

(Women's Aid Federation)^[1]

The 2004 Home Office definition of domestic violence is:

[Any incident] of threatening behaviour,violence or abuse (psychological,physical,sexual,financial or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partners or family members,regardless of gender or sexuality.

(Hester &Westmarland,2005:9)

Such definitions include a wide range of behaviour in domestic violence,similar to Bacchus et al.(2003) and Hester et al.(2000).WAF likewise explains that domestic violence usually occurs between perpetrators and victims who are intimate partners or family members,while the Home Office emphasises not only the current relationship between such partners,but also their previous relationship.Because a wide definition of 'relationship' is used by these bodies,people involved in domestic violence may include parents and children,parents-in-law,grandparents,siblings,heterosexual as well as homosexual couples,partners or cohabitants.In this aspect,the 2004 Home Office's definition covers a wider range of aggressors and victims than the WAF definition does.WAF centres on physically and psychologically violent behaviour that is against the will of victims.Therefore,this definition implies power in the home.However,the Home Office definition uses the word'any' to qualify 'violence',which is similar to Hester et al.(2000).Nevertheless,concepts of power relations are more strongly reflected within the WAF definition than by the UK government in its Home Office definition.

Making a general examination of the above UK definitions,we can see that'domestic violence' is understood to be behaviour which usually takes place in the home,within relationships of either current or former intimacy or family relationship,and is mediated by both gender and sexuality.Domestic violence is not limited to physical harm,but incorporates harm at the psychological or emotional,sexual and/or financial level.Perpetrators (usually men) use such violence to control victims (usually women).Therefore,the definitions reveal issues of lack of gender equality and power in domestic violence and also imply the wide range of experiences of both victims and perpetrators (Mirrlees-Black,1999).