2.2　Recent Chinese Studies

2.2　Recent Chinese Studies

Since the 1995 UN Women's Conference held in Beijing,the exploration of domestic violence has developed rapidly in China (Hester,2005).This is because the conference played an important role in stimulating both policy and research.Firstly,through this conference,the central government of China promised to the world that promotion of equality between men and women would be a basic national policy in China (Li,2005).An awareness of gender has been started to be brought into the social mainstream (Liu,2000).Then,this conference helped academics and practitioners to explore women's issues linking both international feminisms and the women's movement in China (Milwertz,2002).Particularly,the term 'domestic violence' was brought researchers and media's attention (Yi,2003).Gender awareness has been applied in exploration of domestic violence.Many professionals including academics and practitioners,officers and policy-makers,lawyers and judges,doctors and police,became actively engaged in this field.Through this research,they began to see domestic violence not only as a social issue but also as a gender issue of great interest.However,how did they research domestic violence? What did they find? I will introduce some of the most relevant surveys and studies below.

2.2.1　Data from the All-China Women's Federation

The All-China Women's Federation (ACWF) is the biggest government organisation in China (Milwertz,2002).It was set up in 1949 by the Chinese Communist Party(Davin,1976;Hester,2000) and it plays the role of a bridge and tie between the Chinese Communist Party,government and women^[1].The ACWF aims to encourage women to participate in social and economic work and discipline and assists women to strengthen their self-esteem,self-confidence,self-independence and strength,which helps to enhance their quality of life and development^[2].Moreover,the ACWF works to protect the rights and interests of women and children.Accordingly,the ACWF serves women and associates at all levels of government.In particular,the ACWF,following the 1995 UN Women's Conference,actively initiated much practical work around interventions against,and prevention of,domestic violence.

The ACWF constitutes a network all over the country (Li,2003).For example,within the ACWF the Department of Rights and Interests for Women and Children was established in 1983 (Yi,2003).After the 1995 UN Women's Conference,Departments of Rights and Interests have been specially set up in every local Women's Federation (WF).Therefore,the special officers at all levels may receive complaints and look at letters from abused women asking for aid.Additionally,WFs at all levels conduct and organise surveys among Chinese people.The ACWF,including the local WF,conducts questionnaires in provinces all over the country.Thus,they have accumulated substantial information about domestic violence,and provide data to national and local governments,which benefited the governments to make some relevant policies and laws,e.g.The Protection Law of Rights and Interests for Women was made in 1992 and prohibition of domestic violence was stipulated firstly in China Marriage Law in 2001.However,how did the ACWF do specifically in this work? Below are outlines of the ACWF studies involving letters and surveys:

Data from the letters

　• In 1995,the office^[3] of the ACFW received 128,000 letters.Among them,there were about 30 per cent of letters dealing with domestic violence,an increase of 30 times compared with the previous year　(Li &Dong,2003).

　• In 1999,among all letters from the ACWF at all levels covering 29 provinces,autonomous areas and municipalities,there were 2,910 letters/per time dealing with domestic violence　(Li &Dong,2003).

　• In 2000,the office of ACWF found that the letters of complaint and consultation dealing with marriage and family were 50 per cent of the total of letters,including 15 per cent of letters dealing with domestic violence (Hou,2002).

　• In 2002,the office of the ACWF received 36,600 letters about domestic violence.The numbers increased 40 per cent from the previous year.The issue occupied 22 per cent of the total of letters dealing with rights and interests of marriage and family.Nearly 30,000 letters were about conjugal violence.(Li &Zhai,2003).Data from the surveys

　•Domestic violence exists in about thirty per cent of two hundred and seventy million families (Jin &Jin,2002;The MW PCC^[4],2004^[5];Wang,2002;Zhao et al.,2006;Zhuo,2003).

　• About 100,000 families were broken by domestic violence (Jin &Jin,2002;Wang,2002;Zhuo,2003).

　• Sixteen per cent of women recognised that they were battered.Twenty-nine per cent of women were battered (Huang,Sun &Lu,2003;Li,2003;Liang et al.,2004;Yi,2002).

　• Five per cent and three per cent of women reported that they were abused psychologically and sexually respectively (Huang,Sun &Lu,2003;Li,2003;Liang et al.,2004;Yi,2002).

　• The majority of perpetrators in domestic violence (80-90%) were men (Huang,Sun&Lu,2003;Li,2003;Liang et al.,2004;Yi,2002).

The analysis of the ACWF is based not only on the received letters of complaints and consultation but also on investigation.According to the ACWF surveys,we can see that the phenomenon of domestic violence exists in China and is a serious issue.For example,in 2002,the proportion of letters about domestic violence increased 40 per cent compared with the previous year indicating that more people were talking about the issue.The data showed that domestic violence occurred in about 30 per cent of Chinese families (amongst a total of two hundred and seventy million families).In addition,the data from the letters also revealed that domestic violence occurred mainly between wives and husbands.For example,nearly 30,000,among 36,000 letters of domestic violence,were about conjugal violence (Li &Zhai,2003).Because of domestic violence,families would be broken.The data also indicated that women were the main victims.For example,female victims (29.2%) suffered physical violence and five per cent and three per cent of the female victims reported their suffering psychological or sexual violence respectively.Men (80-90%) were the main perpetrators.

2.2.2　Data from the Beijing Maple Women's Hotline^[6]

The Beijing Maple Women's Hotline (BMWH),the first women's hotline in China,was established in September 1992 [Milwertz,2002;The Maple Women's Psychological Counseling Centre (MWPCC),2004^[7]] in order to offer practical support for a vulnerable group,especially for women.Its purpose is 'Women studying women,women supporting women,women educating women' (Milwertz,2002).Its working slogan is 'Pour out your heart's words and we will try to help you'(Qiao,2001).For more than a decade,the Hotline has been an intimate friend for women.The Hotline provides services to individual women and data for research,and research results are applied to lobby for policy and legal change (Milwertz,2003).Large numbers of volunteers are engaged in the Hotline.In particular,many volunteers who are from all circles in society and are female intellectuals (Lu,2001) have provided counseling for those who need aid.It has set a good example for other hotlines and has improved the development of research.For ten years the BMWH has continuously summarised the experiences of victims suffering domestic violence.From the calls based on aid and consultation,practitioners worked in the Hotline have obtained first-hand information.The results of one study follow(Wang,2003)^[8]:

　• Before 2001,the numbers of calls dealing with domestic violence was only about one per cent among the total of calls.

　• In 2002,the rate of complaint calls dealing with domestic violence increased to three per cent.Among the calls,ninety-five per cent of calls were from women.Seventy-two per cent of calls were about battered wives.Four per cent of calls dealt with abused children.Only three per cent of calls were about beating husbands.

　• With regard to region,the majority of calls were from Beijing,but five per cent of calls came from the outskirts of Beijing.However,one quarter of calls were from other areas such as large or medium cities and districts.

　•　Forty per cent of victims had at least a college education,including ten victims having a postgraduate degree.Among the female victims,fifty-nine per cent of hem were employees.Their occupations were government officers,cadres doctors,teachers,intellectuals,businesswomen and service workers.

　• The age of abused women was between twenty-one and forty-five.

　• Domestic violence occurs in a quarter or a third of families,among which twentyfive per cent of domestic violence occurs in the families of 'intellectuals' (Li,2002).

According to these data based on the calls for aid and consultation,we can see that domestic violence is becoming more public.For example,the calls about domestic violence were only one per cent before 2001,while it increased in the follow year.This indicates that people had an awareness of telling their experiences in relation to domestic violence.This might be owing to the fact that this hotline created a special facilities and conditions for victims.In addition,from the data,we can also see that domestic violence is a crucial social issue in China.For example,the majority of complaint calls (95%) were from women.Seventy-two per cent of calls were about battered wives.Accordingly,it may be inferred that women are the main victims and men are perpetrators in domestic violence.At the same time,the data revealed that domestic violence occurred in any kind of family,including for example,those having a high level of education.This challenges the popular (and incorrect) concept that domestic violence occurs only in workers' families.In fact,perpetrators having high education also violate their partners,and victims having a high degree of education may also suffer domestic violence.The data showed that the age of the abused women was wide in range (between 21 and 45 years).

2.2.3　Data from China Law Society

The China Law Society (CLS) is a national social and academic organisation working on the science of law.It acts as a bridge between the Chinese Communist Party,government and the science of law.The CLS has developed 30 Law Societies in the provinces,autonomous areas and municipalities,14 Law Societies in large cities,139 Law Societies in towns and 43 Law Societies in counties.The CLS has 16 research groups concerning different special studies^[9].In particular,the China Law Society,from June 2000 till the present,has led a huge project in China:Domestic Violence in China:Research,Intervention and Prevention.This project is supported by the Ford Foundation,the International and Cooperative Organsation of the Netherlands,the International Development Agency of Sweden and the Human Rights Centre,Oslo University,Norway.The whole project comprises 15 subprojects.This study plays a great role in researching domestic violence in China.Academics and practitioners in the project investigate,analyse,publicise,educate,and write about domestic violence.Quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative(interview) approaches are normally used in their research.The group,in the process of carrying out the project,obtained a great deal of substantial information,which has facilitated the making of special laws and policies against domestic violence.Its analysis of domestic violence based on 3,543 questionnaires responded to by about 3,500 families (Cui,2002;Meng &Zhao,2003) revealed the extent and forms of domestic violence as follow:

　• According to the survey in three provinces such as Gansu,Hunan and Zhejiang,conjugal violence occurred in one third of families (Meng &Zhao,2003).

　• Over eighty-five per cent of perpetrators were men (Meng &Zhao,2003).

　• Sixty-five per cent of husbands did not communicate with or neglected their wives(Cui,2002;Yang,2004).

　• Among 23 per cent to 30 per cent of families,husbands heavily shut doors or threw things when there was contradiction between couples (Li,2003).

　• Among 19 per cent to 22 per cent of families,husbands threatened to beat their wives (Li,2003).

　• Sixty-five per cent of women suffered language abuse (Zhang,2002).

　• Twelve per cent of husbands kicked their wives (Cui,2002).

　• Ten per cent of husbands used objects to beat their wives (Cui,2002).

　• Six per cent of husbands forced their wives to have sexual activity (Cui,2002).

　• Two per cent of husbands used fi re or hot water to abuse their wives (Cui,2002).

According to the CLS data,we can see that the survey focuses on specific behaviours,subjects and relationships.Firstly,the data indicated that domestic violence is a social issue in China because this violence occurred in thirty per cent of families.In addition,this data centred on conjugal violence,with husbands as the majority of perpetrators (85%),which implied that women are the main victims.Apparently,there was a difference in both incidence and type of this violence between wives and husbands.Specifically,this difference has been reflected in the data.The data suggested that such behaviour is typically at the level of psychological and sexual violence and physical violence as well.The phenomenon of husbands being indifferent to their wives is very serious.For example,the proportion of non-communication or neglect by husbands is very high (65%),but wives (65%) were the main victims in experiencing language abuse by their husbands.These behaviours deal with the psychological levels of abusive behaviour.In a word,the data suggested specific violent behaviours in relation to physical,psychological,and sexual violence.From the data,we can see that the CLS study may be more systematical and theoretical.

2.2.4　Data from a Regional Study Report

In China,marital violence is the issue of greatest concern within the study of domestic violence as the above data showed.According to 'Study Report of Abused Women in Chinese Regions' (Tian,2000),Chinese investigators,based on actual violent cases,listed twelve items of husbands abusing their wives.The twelve items were 'killing wives because of doubt';'love the new and loathe the old (xixin yanjiu)';'abusing wives because of being unable to have children';'cruelly injuring or killing wives because of selfish (possessive) love';'cursing and swearing at wives';'imprisoning wives';'threatening wives';'beating up wives';'control wives economically';'forcing wives to have sex';'humiliating wives because of their faults;and 'neglecting wives' (Tian,2000).The investigators,in the light of these items,asked the respondents(n=4,000) to define whether these behaviours are domestic violence or not.The researchers were attempting to learn whether respondents were aware of domestic violence.Their attitudes towards domestic violence are described below^[10]:

Agree the following are marital violence:

(1) killing wives because of doubt (88%)^[11]

(2) abusing wives because of being unable to have children (88%)

(3) cruelly injuring or killing wives because of selfish love (87%)

(4) punching and kicking wives (86%)

(5) harming wives because of loving the new and loathing the old (xixin yanjiu)(85%)

(6) forcing wives to have sexual activity (79%)^[12]

Disagree the following are marital violence:

(7) neglecting wives (32%)

(8) controlling wives economically (31%)

(9) using language to abuse wives (25%)

(10) humiliating wives (24%)

We can see the attitudes of many Chinese people towards domestic violence in the light of these data.They appear sensitive only to physical violence.For example,the majority of respondents saw the items one to six as domestic violence.However,a third of respondents,regarding the items seven to ten at the psychological level,did not recognise that behaviours such as neglecting wives,controlling wives economically,language abuse,and so on were also domestic violence.Thus,psychological violence remains an invisible issue which is not accepted completely in China.Some Chinese academics surmise that more than one fourth of men neglect those wives who suffer the psychological violence used against them by their husbands,which is a terrible thing (Tian,2000).The harm at psychological level,in fact,can be the same as physical violence (Rong,2002).

2.2.5　Data from Li et al.'s^[13] study

Li et al.'s study (2002) is a local survey.This study was located in Wuhan and conducted with two hundred and seventy-nine families which were from five districts.Only women in the families were respondents.The questionnaire '2001 Questionnaire of Family Situation' designed by Li's team covered 'personal demographic information',relating to the individual and her spouse,'situation of marriage and family','awareness of domestic violence',and 'situation of domestic violence'.The survey included domestic violence occurring between January and December 2000 and in a legal marital relationship.The analysis of this data appears below:

　• Among two hundred seventy-nine families,there were seventy-nine families(28%) where domestic violence occurred between January and December 2000.

　• Slight violent forms:

　• Heavy violent forms:

According to these data,we can see that Li et al.'s research paid more attention to physically violent tactics and focused mainly on domestic physical assault.Li's group classified violent behaviour into two categories:slight and heavy.Among the violent forms,only one dealt with sexual violence.It may be inferred that many Chinese people now accept physical and sexual violence as domestic violence.With regard to slight forms,Chinese perpetrators like to use 'pushing or pulling' to violate their victims.Its proportion (48%) was the highest among other slight forms.However,in respect to heavy forms,'hitting' and 'fist and foot' used by Chinese perpetrators were the highest among other heavy forms,reaching 45 per cent and 39 per cent respectively.We can also see that such behaviour as 'beating with belt' was used by perpetrators at a proportion of six per cent.In Li et al's study,violence was not measured at a psychological level.

2.2.6　Data from Tong's study

Tong's study (2000) is a local qualitative investigation and focuses on women's experiences of domestic violence.She interviewed 34 female victims in Beijing between 1995 and 1998.In respect to educational background,20 interviewees were at the level beyond college,13 interviewees were at the level of junior and senior school,but only one was illiterate.With regard to age,nine interviewees were below 30 years old,21 were from 31 to 50 years old and four were over 51 years old.Her study may be similar to Mooney's study:a victimisation surveys.Information on how these female victims tolerated domestic violence by their husbands will be provided below:

Interviewee 1 as an editor was at 38 years old and was at a level of college and told her story below:

...I didn't understand why he could batter me when my daughter was three years old.I couldn't tolerate this so that I stayed in another room and didn't talk with him for a few days.In my mind there was only an idea – divorce.But I had no idea when I thought that a broken family would impact on our daughter and how I faced the future life if I divorced.Moreover,I knew my husband had strong self-esteem.He felt imbalance because my personal value was higher than his in society.So,he was easily angry at me.Therefore I excused him.

Interviewee 2 had a high educational background,was 33 years old and worked in a trade company.She described her story below:

My marriage began at the time I was a third party.I knew my husband had a wife and a daughter.Before my marriage,many relatives and friends opposed me.For this,I even broke off the relationship with my parents....After the two-year marriage,we had our daughter.But my husband felt unhappy because I gave birth of a daughter and he wanted a son.So,without any reasonable factors,he started to batter me after 45 days of myhaving a baby.I didn't know how to face his behaviour because I was busy to work in the company and earned more money than he,I let him eat and drink enjoyably.But he returned battery to me.Once he saw me to talking with men,he went home and battered me....I really wanted to divorce but I couldn't do so because of my daughter....I feared divorce and tolerated him because of my daughter.I had to tolerate him also because many people opposed my marriage with him but I chose him....

Interviewee 3 was Doctor of Philosophy,34 years old and worked in the city council.Her experience was as follows:

I had a PhD degree but my husband would have had only a MA degree.If I didn't insist on going to Beijing for my study,my husband had good development in his previous Danwei.I knew that he was not convinced so he was angry at me if he felt upset.He firstly battered me because I went home late.When I answered him that I went to the library he didn't believe in it and grasped my hair and battered me....Particularly he forced me to have a sexual activity although my face was swollen and my eyes were too swollen to open because of his battering.He said that 'I would do what I want and why you are my wife?' ...I wanted to divorce but he didn't agree with me....Finally I excused him because I feared loneliness.I had no relatives and friends in Beijing but only him....

Interviewee 4 had a MA degree,was a teacher but her husband had a PhD degree and worked in a department of administration.She also suffered domestic violence by her husband and said:

My husband was very masculine and had bad temper but he had a strong sense of responsibility for family.In the home we should all listen to him and couldn't argue with him.If I argued with him,he would lose control of himself and battered me.He battered me many times,which insulted me.I thought about divorce for a few times.But I gave up this idea because we all liked our son and both would struggle for the guardianship of our son.Accordingly,I was afraid of losing my son if I divorced.This was also because our fl at was allotted by his Danwei.Where would I live if I divorced from him because my parents didn't live in Beijing?

According to Tong's study,the data firstly showed the experiences of these four wives suffering physical violence by their husbands although they had high educational backgrounds and had good jobs and salary in comparison with their husbands.From the data,we can also see that the four victims wanted to divorce from their husbands when they experienced domestic violence in the home.However,they finally gave up this because of their children,of their relatives and friends,of fearing loneliness and of dwelling house.At the same time,from the data,we can see that they usually blamed themselves and excused their husbands.The data therefore showed that wives were considered subordinate to their husbands in the home.

2.2.7　Summary

From the previous studies,dealing with the extent,attitudes,experiences and types of domestic violence in China,we can see that the phenomenon of domestic violence not only exists but also that it is serious and widespread in China.Nearly 30 per cent of families experienced domestic violence according to the ACWF and the CLS surveys (Huang,Sun &Lu,2003;Jin &Jin,2002;Li,2003;Liang et al.,2004;Meng &Zhao,2003;Wang,2002;Yi,2002;Zhao et al.,2006;Zuo,2003).In particular,the data,from the CLS study,revealed the extent of psychological violence which is prominent in China.Sixty-five per cent of husbands used noncommunication or neglected their partners when there was conflict between them(Cui,2002;Yang,2004).Moreover,sixty-five per cent of wives experienced verbal abuse from their husbands (Zhang,2002).In addition,these results indicated that different violent behaviours by perpetrators covered the level of physical,psychological and sexual abuse.Nevertheless,these data might focus more on physical violence,which had been reflected in Li et al.'s study and Tong's study.In the Wuhan survey,the researchers divided the physical violent behaviour into slight and heavy injury,while Tong's interview data indicated that the four female interviewees suffered physical violence by their husbands.A Regional Study report revealed how Chinese people defined domestic violence.The majority of them considered physical or sexual violence as domestic violence,but not psychological violence.At the same time,the data showed that women were the main victims of domestic violence,which was a common issue here in all provided data.Gender and power inequality were directly reflected in these studies,especially in Tong's study.

In particular,the data also showed that domestic violence also exists in families with high educational backgrounds,meaning that women who typically had a certain status in society,including a good salary and independence,could suffer violence in such families (Wang,2003),which reflected obviously in the BMWH and Tong's data.Domestic violence thus occurs in any kind of family.

Finally,we can see that researching domestic violence in China is increasing.Academics and practitioners are beginning to explore research that fits the Chinese context and to use different methods to survey in the field.For example,the substantial information gathered by the ACWF originated mainly from the letters of complaints and consultation,while the first-hand materials of the BMWH was produced by calls of speakers' pouring out their feelings.Other investigators,such as those from the CLS and Tong's study,used questionnaires to gather factual data and used interviews to obtain deep data.From their studies,we can see that Chinese research in this field is gradually becoming more systematical and theoretical.