2.3　Comparing studies between the UK and China

2.3　Comparing studies between the UK and China

Through analysing some of the British and Chinese studies on domestic violence,we can see that some similarities and differences between them can be identified.One concerns the actual results of the surveys,covering the prevalence or extent of domestic violence,and the way those who experienced it feel,as well as public attitudes,which were quite similar between the two countries.Another is in the style or methodologies used in research.These similarities and differences reveal the developmental paths of exploring domestic violence in both countries.Such similarities and differences are discussed below.

2.3.1　What these studies revealed

According to the existing studies on domestic violence in two countries,domestic violence is a key social issue in both countries.For example,in 1996,according to the BCS,there were 13.6 million incidents of domestic violence (Mirrlees-Black,1999),whereas in 2001,incidents of domestic violence increased to 15.4 million(Walby,et al.,2004).Concerning the Chinese studies,in 2002,the office of the ACWF received 36,600 letters about domestic violence.The numbers increased 40 per cent from the previous year (Li &Zhai,2003).Domestic violence,in the light of the ACWF and the CLS studies,existed in about 30 per cent of families (Jin &Jin,2002;The MWPCC^[14],2004;Wang,2002;Zhao,2003;Zhao et al.,2006;Zuo,2003).According to these studies,domestic violence is widespread in both countries.

The data within the two countries revealed that women are the main victims in domestic violence.Either with respect to injury or to disclosing,women constitute the majority of those suffering domestic violence.For example,32 per cent of women had experienced domestic violence from this person four or more times compared with only 11 per cent of men (Walby et al.,2004) and women were far more likely to say they had experienced domestic assault at some time in their lives(Mirrlees-Black,1999).Such phenomena in China are similar to the UK.More than 89 per cent of men violate their wives through domestic violence (Huang,Sun &Lu,2003;Li,2003;Liang,Wang &Xiao,2004;Yi,2002).And 95 per cent of calls for aid were from women suffering domestic violence.Seventy-two per cent of calls were about battered wives,specifically (Wang,2003).According to the qualitative data in both countries,they also revealed that women are the main victims in domestic violence.The data showed how women/wives tolerated men/husbands' abuse.

Why,then,are women the main victims in domestic violence? One explanation concerns the concept of 'man as dominant,women as subordinate' which has a historic legacy and has been rooted in many people's mind.Women and men,wives and husbands,girls and boys do not share similar life-chances in family and society(Hanmer et al.,2000).There is gender inequality in this violence between both sexes.Usually,women may be viewed as 'tools' to enable men to be productive workers,by doing housework and reproducing (Engels,1972).As the data showed,men use women/wives like 'tools' and they had to suffer sexual violence as a form of domestic violence.Because of this concept of gender inequality existing,women's position is nowadays still lower than men's inside and outside the home although the division of labour seems to have been changed in society in recent years.Many women have become breadwinners but they may still be violated by husbands,as exhibited in the BMWH (Wang,2003) and Tong's (2000) studies.As Hanmer et al.(2000) point out,men often occupy a dominant position in the construction of social life and this may be maintained by degradation,humiliation and personal injury.They may gain benefits through the use of violence,e.g.abusing women,and to safeguard their superiority (these issues are discussed further in the following chapters).

At the same time,the data of the UK and China revealed how victims and academics in both countries defined domestic violence in relation to a variety of violent types.From this,we can see that there were similarities.For example,in Mooney's study (2000),76 per cent of women thought forcing sex by men should be seen as a part of domestic violence,while in a Regional Study Report (2000),79 per cent of the Chinese respondents also thought that this behaviour belonged to domestic violence.Nevertheless,one fifth of women or people did not see being forced to have sex as domestic violence in the two countries.Again in Mooney's study (2000),76 per cent of women considered domestic violence included physical violence such as grabbing,pushing,shaking although these behaviours may not result in actual bodily harm,while Li et al.'s study (2002) classified such behaviours into 'slight violent forms'.'Pushing or pulling' and 'slapping' were top slight behaviours among other behaviours.The proportion of them was 72 per cent,which may indicate that the female respondents frequently experienced these violent behaviours by their partners in China.Additionally,in the studies of both countries,nearly 30 per cent of women did not see psychological violence as domestic violence as Mooney's study and a Regional Study Report have shown.In particular,these studies also revealed the similarity in the experiences of the female victims.Hanmer et al.(2000) and Tong's studies (2000) are good cases in point.Their data showed that the female victims blamed themselves and excused and tolerated their partners within the context of suffering domestic violence.In particular,Tong's interview data showed that the female victims had a strong idea,divorce,when they experienced domestic violence by their husbands but finally they gave up because of their children,of housing and of relatives and friends.

Through these similarities,we can see that the awareness of domestic violence by the respondents,in particular by women,is quite common although the history of using the term 'domestic violence' and of discussing this violence openly is very different between the two countries.This indicates that experiences of domestic violence by the victims are the same regardless of where it occurs and who experiences it.This also indicates why domestic violence is a global issue.

Finally,through looking at these studies,we can see that the researchers of both countries had the same purpose for exploration of domestic violence.For example,through their research,domestic violence has been seen as a social and gender issue,e.g.the phenomenon of this violence occurs prominently in the home,specifically between wives and husbands,there is a difference in this violence between them,and how long it has been on the public agenda for more than thirty years,particularly in China (Tang et al.,2002),e.g.the item 'prohibition of domestic violence' was stipulated in 2001 China Marriage Law.

From these studies,we can see that academics and practitioners of both countries explore domestic violence in different reporting styles.For example,British academics may be likely to use numbers to express incidents of domestic violence[e.g.one in five women and one in ten men have been victims of domestic violence(Walby et al.,2004)],while Chinese researchers may be likely mainly to use percentages to express the occurrence of domestic violence [e.g.domestic violence exists in about 30 per cent of two hundred and seventy million families (Jin &Jin,2002;The MWPCC,2004;Wang,2002;Zhao et al.,2006;Zhuo,2003)].In addition,British data is normally expressed within the framework of the individual,whereas Chinese data is within the structure of the family.This may mean that the UK's research focuses to a greater extent on individuals,but Chinese research centres on families.British academics may use 'frightening threats' to cover psychological or emotional violence,while Chinese academics provide specific violent behaviour in relation to physical,psychological and sexual level.

This difference in methods of reporting may be caused by different cultures between both countries.For the UK,British people may seek simplicity and explicitness in their lives,which may be also reflected in their research.For example,people can easily understand the information of incidents of domestic violence when they read the numbers.But for China,Chinese people may seek specification and colour in their lives,which may be also reflected in their research.For example,people can specifically understand what forms of domestic violence are likely to be used by perpetrators.In addition,as Chapter 1 illustrated,Chinese people centre more on family as 'primary',while British people centre more on self and individualism (Yang,2004).Therefore,the British data is usually shown within the framework of the individual,whereas the Chinese data is usually shown within the framework of the family.

2.3.2　Summary

After this comparison,we can firstly see that the British and Chinese studies have commonly shown that domestic violence is a social issue and women may be the main victims.Then we can also see that there were similarities in their research data,which revealed that no matter where and how domestic violence occurs,the experiences and impacts are nearly similar for victims.The research purpose is the same between both British and Chinese academics and practitioners.Because of their exploration,domestic violence has been aroused general concern and has become the public issue.From these studies,we can obtain the substantial information concerning domestic violence,which will benefit our future research.Through this comparison,we can see that there is a difference in methods of their research reporting,which may be caused by the different cultures.

Through looking at and comparing some previous studies undertaken within the UK and China,I think that this process of comparison is very important for my research,which lets me examine domestic violence broadly.From this comparison,I found that this step facilitated the orientation of my own research.As Steinmetz and Straus (1974) have pointed out,their original study was criticised because of the tools used to produce the findings,and they then adapted these tools to some extent.From previous studies,I have been able to reflect on the experiences described in order to improve my research.For example,according to Chinese studies,domestic violence occurs more frequently between husbands and wives.What causes this phenomenon in families? How and why does domestic violence occur between husbands and wives? To pursue these questions,I will discuss marriage and family and gender inequality below.

【注释】

[1]Source:http://fl.hongshan.gov.cn/darticle/list.asp?id=10 [Accessed:21 February 2005]．

[2]Quoted from the Constitution of the All-China Women's Federation (1998) in http://www.rc114.com/gh/read/news_view.asp?newsid=29 [Accessed:21 February 2005]．

[3]The office is located in Department of Rights and Interests in the ACWF,which specially deals with letters of complaint from the people and the calls they make to lodge complaints.In 'Data from the letters',the office all means the office of Department of Rights and　Interests in the ACWF.

[4]It is a short form and means 'The Maple Women's Psychological Counselling Centre'.

[5]A non-published booklet．

[6]The hotline of The Maple Women's Psychological Counseling Centre,Beijing．

[7]A non-published booklet．

[8]Data 1-5 are quoted from Wang (2003)．

[9]Source:http://www.legalinfo.gov.cn/joa/zhishudanwei/faxuehui.htm [Accessed:21 February 2005]．

[10]Data is quoted from Tian,2000．

[11]1- 6:respondents 'more agree and agree' that this belonged to domestic violence．

[12]7-10:respondents did not agree that this belonged to domestic violence．

[13]Authors are from Tongji School of Medical Science in Huangzhong Science and Technology University;Health Centre for Women and Children of Qiaokou District in Wuhan;and Health Centre for Women and Children of Jiang′an District in Wuhan respectively.

[14]The Maple Women's Psychological Counselling Centre．